FLEXDOC.1
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- .TH FLEX 1 "26 May 1990" "Version 2.3"
- .SH NAME
- flexdoc - fast lexical analyzer generator
- .SH SYNOPSIS
- .B flex
- .B [-bcdfinpstvFILT8 -C[efmF] -Sskeleton]
- .I [filename ...]
- .SH DESCRIPTION
- .I flex
- is a tool for generating
- .I scanners:
- programs which recognized lexical patterns in text.
- .I flex
- reads
- the given input files, or its standard input if no file names are given,
- for a description of a scanner to generate. The description is in
- the form of pairs
- of regular expressions and C code, called
- .I rules. flex
- generates as output a C source file,
- .B lex.yy.c,
- which defines a routine
- .B yylex().
- This file is compiled and linked with the
- .B -lfl
- library to produce an executable. When the executable is run,
- it analyzes its input for occurrences
- of the regular expressions. Whenever it finds one, it executes
- the corresponding C code.
- .SH SOME SIMPLE EXAMPLES
- .LP
- First some simple examples to get the flavor of how one uses
- .I flex.
- The following
- .I flex
- input specifies a scanner which whenever it encounters the string
- "username" will replace it with the user's login name:
- .nf
- %%
- username printf( "%s", getlogin() );
- .fi
- By default, any text not matched by a
- .I flex
- scanner
- is copied to the output, so the net effect of this scanner is
- to copy its input file to its output with each occurrence
- of "username" expanded.
- In this input, there is just one rule. "username" is the
- .I pattern
- and the "printf" is the
- .I action.
- The "%%" marks the beginning of the rules.
- .LP
- Here's another simple example:
- .nf
- int num_lines = 0, num_chars = 0;
- %%
- \n ++num_lines; ++num_chars;
- . ++num_chars;
- %%
- main()
- {
- yylex();
- printf( "# of lines = %d, # of chars = %d\n",
- num_lines, num_chars );
- }
- .fi
- This scanner counts the number of characters and the number
- of lines in its input (it produces no output other than the
- final report on the counts). The first line
- declares two globals, "num_lines" and "num_chars", which are accessible
- both inside
- .B yylex()
- and in the
- .B main()
- routine declared after the second "%%". There are two rules, one
- which matches a newline ("\n") and increments both the line count and
- the character count, and one which matches any character other than
- a newline (indicated by the "." regular expression).
- .LP
- A somewhat more complicated example:
- .nf
- /* scanner for a toy Pascal-like language */
- %{
- /* need this for the call to atof() below */
- #include <math.h>
- %}
- DIGIT [0-9]
- ID [a-z][a-z0-9]*
- %%
- {DIGIT}+ {
- printf( "An integer: %s (%d)\n", yytext,
- atoi( yytext ) );
- }
- {DIGIT}+"."{DIGIT}* {
- printf( "A float: %s (%g)\n", yytext,
- atof( yytext ) );
- }
- if|then|begin|end|procedure|function {
- printf( "A keyword: %s\n", yytext );
- }
- {ID} printf( "An identifier: %s\n", yytext );
- "+"|"-"|"*"|"/" printf( "An operator: %s\n", yytext );
- "{"[^}\n]*"}" /* eat up one-line comments */
- [ \t\n]+ /* eat up whitespace */
- . printf( "Unrecognized character: %s\n", yytext );
- %%
- main( argc, argv )
- int argc;
- char **argv;
- {
- ++argv, --argc; /* skip over program name */
- if ( argc > 0 )
- yyin = fopen( argv[0], "r" );
- else
- yyin = stdin;
-
- yylex();
- }
- .fi
- This is the beginnings of a simple scanner for a language like
- Pascal. It identifies different types of
- .I tokens
- and reports on what it has seen.
- .LP
- The details of this example will be explained in the following
- sections.
- .SH FORMAT OF THE INPUT FILE
- The
- .I flex
- input file consists of three sections, separated by a line with just
- .B %%
- in it:
- .nf
- definitions
- %%
- rules
- %%
- user code
- .fi
- The
- .I definitions
- section contains declarations of simple
- .I name
- definitions to simplify the scanner specification, and declarations of
- .I start conditions,
- which are explained in a later section.
- .LP
- Name definitions have the form:
- .nf
- name definition
- .fi
- The "name" is a word beginning with a letter or an underscore ('_')
- followed by zero or more letters, digits, '_', or '-' (dash).
- The definition is taken to begin at the first non-white-space character
- following the name and continuing to the end of the line.
- The definition can subsequently be referred to using "{name}", which
- will expand to "(definition)". For example,
- .nf
- DIGIT [0-9]
- ID [a-z][a-z0-9]*
- .fi
- defines "DIGIT" to be a regular expression which matches a
- single digit, and
- "ID" to be a regular expression which matches a letter
- followed by zero-or-more letters-or-digits.
- A subsequent reference to
- .nf
- {DIGIT}+"."{DIGIT}*
- .fi
- is identical to
- .nf
- ([0-9])+"."([0-9])*
- .fi
- and matches one-or-more digits followed by a '.' followed
- by zero-or-more digits.
- .LP
- The
- .I rules
- section of the
- .I flex
- input contains a series of rules of the form:
- .nf
- pattern action
- .fi
- where the pattern must be unindented and the action must begin
- on the same line.
- .LP
- See below for a further description of patterns and actions.
- .LP
- Finally, the user code section is simply copied to
- .B lex.yy.c
- verbatim.
- It is used for companion routines which call or are called
- by the scanner. The presence of this section is optional;
- if it is missing, the second
- .B %%
- in the input file may be skipped, too.
- .LP
- In the definitions and rules sections, any
- .I indented
- text or text enclosed in
- .B %{
- and
- .B %}
- is copied verbatim to the output (with the %{}'s removed).
- The %{}'s must appear unindented on lines by themselves.
- .LP
- In the rules section,
- any indented or %{} text appearing before the
- first rule may be used to declare variables
- which are local to the scanning routine and (after the declarations)
- code which is to be executed whenever the scanning routine is entered.
- Other indented or %{} text in the rule section is still copied to the output,
- but its meaning is not well-defined and it may well cause compile-time
- errors (this feature is present for
- .I POSIX
- compliance; see below for other such features).
- .LP
- In the definitions section, an unindented comment (i.e., a line
- beginning with "/*") is also copied verbatim to the output up
- to the next "*/". Also, any line in the definitions section
- beginning with '#' is ignored, though this style of comment is
- deprecated and may go away in the future.
- .SH PATTERNS
- The patterns in the input are written using an extended set of regular
- expressions. These are:
- .nf
- x match the character 'x'
- . any character except newline
- [xyz] a "character class"; in this case, the pattern
- matches either an 'x', a 'y', or a 'z'
- [abj-oZ] a "character class" with a range in it; matches
- an 'a', a 'b', any letter from 'j' through 'o',
- or a 'Z'
- [^A-Z] a "negated character class", i.e., any character
- but those in the class. In this case, any
- character EXCEPT an uppercase letter.
- [^A-Z\n] any character EXCEPT an uppercase letter or
- a newline
- r* zero or more r's, where r is any regular expression
- r+ one or more r's
- r? zero or one r's (that is, "an optional r")
- r{2,5} anywhere from two to five r's
- r{2,} two or more r's
- r{4} exactly 4 r's
- {name} the expansion of the "name" definition
- (see above)
- "[xyz]\"foo"
- the literal string: [xyz]"foo
- \X if X is an 'a', 'b', 'f', 'n', 'r', 't', or 'v',
- then the ANSI-C interpretation of \x.
- Otherwise, a literal 'X' (used to escape
- operators such as '*')
- \123 the character with octal value 123
- \x2a the character with hexadecimal value 2a
- (r) match an r; parentheses are used to override
- precedence (see below)
- rs the regular expression r followed by the
- regular expression s; called "concatenation"
- r|s either an r or an s
- r/s an r but only if it is followed by an s. The
- s is not part of the matched text. This type
- of pattern is called as "trailing context".
- ^r an r, but only at the beginning of a line
- r$ an r, but only at the end of a line. Equivalent
- to "r/\n".
- <s>r an r, but only in start condition s (see
- below for discussion of start conditions)
- <s1,s2,s3>r
- same, but in any of start conditions s1,
- s2, or s3
- <<EOF>> an end-of-file
- <s1,s2><<EOF>>
- an end-of-file when in start condition s1 or s2
- .fi
- The regular expressions listed above are grouped according to
- precedence, from highest precedence at the top to lowest at the bottom.
- Those grouped together have equal precedence. For example,
- .nf
- foo|bar*
- .fi
- is the same as
- .nf
- (foo)|(ba(r*))
- .fi
- since the '*' operator has higher precedence than concatenation,
- and concatenation higher than alternation ('|'). This pattern
- therefore matches
- .I either
- the string "foo"
- .I or
- the string "ba" followed by zero-or-more r's.
- To match "foo" or zero-or-more "bar"'s, use:
- .nf
- foo|(bar)*
- .fi
- and to match zero-or-more "foo"'s-or-"bar"'s:
- .nf
- (foo|bar)*
- .fi
- .LP
- Some notes on patterns:
- .IP -
- A negated character class such as the example "[^A-Z]"
- above
- .I will match a newline
- unless "\n" (or an equivalent escape sequence) is one of the
- characters explicitly present in the negated character class
- (e.g., "[^A-Z\n]"). This is unlike how many other regular
- expression tools treat negated character classes, but unfortunately
- the inconsistency is historically entrenched.
- Matching newlines means that a pattern like [^"]* can match an entire
- input (overflowing the scanner's input buffer) unless there's another
- quote in the input.
- .IP -
- A rule can have at most one instance of trailing context (the '/' operator
- or the '$' operator). The start condition, '^', and "<<EOF>>" patterns
- can only occur at the beginning of a pattern, and, as well as with '/' and '$',
- cannot be grouped inside parentheses. A '^' which does not occur at
- the beginning of a rule or a '$' which does not occur at the end of
- a rule loses its special properties and is treated as a normal character.
- .IP
- The following are illegal:
- .nf
- foo/bar$
- <sc1>foo<sc2>bar
- .fi
- Note that the first of these, can be written "foo/bar\n".
- .IP
- The following will result in '$' or '^' being treated as a normal character:
- .nf
- foo|(bar$)
- foo|^bar
- .fi
- If what's wanted is a "foo" or a bar-followed-by-a-newline, the following
- could be used (the special '|' action is explained below):
- .nf
- foo |
- bar$ /* action goes here */
- .fi
- A similar trick will work for matching a foo or a
- bar-at-the-beginning-of-a-line.
- .SH HOW THE INPUT IS MATCHED
- When the generated scanner is run, it analyzes its input looking
- for strings which match any of its patterns. If it finds more than
- one match, it takes the one matching the most text (for trailing
- context rules, this includes the length of the trailing part, even
- though it will then be returned to the input). If it finds two
- or more matches of the same length, the
- rule listed first in the
- .I flex
- input file is chosen.
- .LP
- Once the match is determined, the text corresponding to the match
- (called the
- .I token)
- is made available in the global character pointer
- .B yytext,
- and its length in the global integer
- .B yyleng.
- The
- .I action
- corresponding to the matched pattern is then executed (a more
- detailed description of actions follows), and then the remaining
- input is scanned for another match.
- .LP
- If no match is found, then the
- .I default rule
- is executed: the next character in the input is considered matched and
- copied to the standard output. Thus, the simplest legal
- .I flex
- input is:
- .nf
- %%
- .fi
- which generates a scanner that simply copies its input (one character
- at a time) to its output.
- .SH ACTIONS
- Each pattern in a rule has a corresponding action, which can be any
- arbitrary C statement. The pattern ends at the first non-escaped
- whitespace character; the remainder of the line is its action. If the
- action is empty, then when the pattern is matched the input token
- is simply discarded. For example, here is the specification for a program
- which deletes all occurrences of "zap me" from its input:
- .nf
- %%
- "zap me"
- .fi
- (It will copy all other characters in the input to the output since
- they will be matched by the default rule.)
- .LP
- Here is a program which compresses multiple blanks and tabs down to
- a single blank, and throws away whitespace found at the end of a line:
- .nf
- %%
- [ \t]+ putchar( ' ' );
- [ \t]+$ /* ignore this token */
- .fi
- .LP
- If the action contains a '{', then the action spans till the balancing '}'
- is found, and the action may cross multiple lines.
- .I flex
- knows about C strings and comments and won't be fooled by braces found
- within them, but also allows actions to begin with
- .B %{
- and will consider the action to be all the text up to the next
- .B %}
- (regardless of ordinary braces inside the action).
- .LP
- An action consisting solely of a vertical bar ('|') means "same as
- the action for the next rule." See below for an illustration.
- .LP
- Actions can include arbitrary C code, including
- .B return
- statements to return a value to whatever routine called
- .B yylex().
- Each time
- .B yylex()
- is called it continues processing tokens from where it last left
- off until it either reaches
- the end of the file or executes a return. Once it reaches an end-of-file,
- however, then any subsequent call to
- .B yylex()
- will simply immediately return, unless
- .B yyrestart()
- is first called (see below).
- .LP
- Actions are not allowed to modify yytext or yyleng.
- .LP
- There are a number of special directives which can be included within
- an action:
- .IP -
- .B ECHO
- copies yytext to the scanner's output.
- .IP -
- .B BEGIN
- followed by the name of a start condition places the scanner in the
- corresponding start condition (see below).
- .IP -
- .B REJECT
- directs the scanner to proceed on to the "second best" rule which matched the
- input (or a prefix of the input). The rule is chosen as described
- above in "How the Input is Matched", and
- .B yytext
- and
- .B yyleng
- set up appropriately.
- It may either be one which matched as much text
- as the originally chosen rule but came later in the
- .I flex
- input file, or one which matched less text.
- For example, the following will both count the
- words in the input and call the routine special() whenever "frob" is seen:
- .nf
- int word_count = 0;
- %%
- frob special(); REJECT;
- [^ \t\n]+ ++word_count;
- .fi
- Without the
- .B REJECT,
- any "frob"'s in the input would not be counted as words, since the
- scanner normally executes only one action per token.
- Multiple
- .B REJECT's
- are allowed, each one finding the next best choice to the currently
- active rule. For example, when the following scanner scans the token
- "abcd", it will write "abcdabcaba" to the output:
- .nf
- %%
- a |
- ab |
- abc |
- abcd ECHO; REJECT;
- .|\n /* eat up any unmatched character */
- .fi
- (The first three rules share the fourth's action since they use
- the special '|' action.)
- .B REJECT
- is a particularly expensive feature in terms scanner performance;
- if it is used in
- .I any
- of the scanner's actions it will slow down
- .I all
- of the scanner's matching. Furthermore,
- .B REJECT
- cannot be used with the
- .I -f
- or
- .I -F
- options (see below).
- .IP
- Note also that unlike the other special actions,
- .B REJECT
- is a
- .I branch;
- code immediately following it in the action will
- .I not
- be executed.
- .IP -
- .B yymore()
- tells the scanner that the next time it matches a rule, the corresponding
- token should be
- .I appended
- onto the current value of
- .B yytext
- rather than replacing it. For example, given the input "mega-kludge"
- the following will write "mega-mega-kludge" to the output:
- .nf
- %%
- mega- ECHO; yymore();
- kludge ECHO;
- .fi
- First "mega-" is matched and echoed to the output. Then "kludge"
- is matched, but the previous "mega-" is still hanging around at the
- beginning of
- .B yytext
- so the
- .B ECHO
- for the "kludge" rule will actually write "mega-kludge".
- The presence of
- .B yymore()
- in the scanner's action entails a minor performance penalty in the
- scanner's matching speed.
- .IP -
- .B yyless(n)
- returns all but the first
- .I n
- characters of the current token back to the input stream, where they
- will be rescanned when the scanner looks for the next match.
- .B yytext
- and
- .B yyleng
- are adjusted appropriately (e.g.,
- .B yyleng
- will now be equal to
- .I n
- ). For example, on the input "foobar" the following will write out
- "foobarbar":
- .nf
- %%
- foobar ECHO; yyless(3);
- [a-z]+ ECHO;
- .fi
- An argument of 0 to
- .B yyless
- will cause the entire current input string to be scanned again. Unless you've
- changed how the scanner will subsequently process its input (using
- .B BEGIN,
- for example), this will result in an endless loop.
- .IP -
- .B unput(c)
- puts the character
- .I c
- back onto the input stream. It will be the next character scanned.
- The following action will take the current token and cause it
- to be rescanned enclosed in parentheses.
- .nf
- {
- int i;
- unput( ')' );
- for ( i = yyleng - 1; i >= 0; --i )
- unput( yytext[i] );
- unput( '(' );
- }
- .fi
- Note that since each
- .B unput()
- puts the given character back at the
- .I beginning
- of the input stream, pushing back strings must be done back-to-front.
- .IP -
- .B input()
- reads the next character from the input stream. For example,
- the following is one way to eat up C comments:
- .nf
- %%
- "/*" {
- register int c;
- for ( ; ; )
- {
- while ( (c = input()) != '*' &&
- c != EOF )
- ; /* eat up text of comment */
- if ( c == '*' )
- {
- while ( (c = input()) == '*' )
- ;
- if ( c == '/' )
- break; /* found the end */
- }
- if ( c == EOF )
- {
- error( "EOF in comment" );
- break;
- }
- }
- }
- .fi
- (Note that if the scanner is compiled using
- .B C++,
- then
- .B input()
- is instead referred to as
- .B yyinput(),
- in order to avoid a name clash with the
- .B C++
- stream by the name of
- .I input.)
- .IP -
- .B yyterminate()
- can be used in lieu of a return statement in an action. It terminates
- the scanner and returns a 0 to the scanner's caller, indicating "all done".
- Subsequent calls to the scanner will immediately return unless preceded
- by a call to
- .B yyrestart()
- (see below).
- By default,
- .B yyterminate()
- is also called when an end-of-file is encountered. It is a macro and
- may be redefined.
- .SH THE GENERATED SCANNER
- The output of
- .I flex
- is the file
- .B lex.yy.c,
- which contains the scanning routine
- .B yylex(),
- a number of tables used by it for matching tokens, and a number
- of auxiliary routines and macros. By default,
- .B yylex()
- is declared as follows:
- .nf
- int yylex()
- {
- ... various definitions and the actions in here ...
- }
- .fi
- (If your environment supports function prototypes, then it will
- be "int yylex( void )".) This definition may be changed by redefining
- the "YY_DECL" macro. For example, you could use:
- .nf
- #undef YY_DECL
- #define YY_DECL float lexscan( a, b ) float a, b;
- .fi
- to give the scanning routine the name
- .I lexscan,
- returning a float, and taking two floats as arguments. Note that
- if you give arguments to the scanning routine using a
- K&R-style/non-prototyped function declaration, you must terminate
- the definition with a semi-colon (;).
- .LP
- Whenever
- .B yylex()
- is called, it scans tokens from the global input file
- .I yyin
- (which defaults to stdin). It continues until it either reaches
- an end-of-file (at which point it returns the value 0) or
- one of its actions executes a
- .I return
- statement.
- In the former case, when called again the scanner will immediately
- return unless
- .B yyrestart()
- is called to point
- .I yyin
- at the new input file. (
- .B yyrestart()
- takes one argument, a
- .B FILE *
- pointer.)
- In the latter case (i.e., when an action
- executes a return), the scanner may then be called again and it
- will resume scanning where it left off.
- .LP
- By default (and for purposes of efficiency), the scanner uses
- block-reads rather than simple
- .I getc()
- calls to read characters from
- .I yyin.
- The nature of how it gets its input can be controlled by redefining the
- .B YY_INPUT
- macro.
- YY_INPUT's calling sequence is "YY_INPUT(buf,result,max_size)". Its
- action is to place up to
- .I max_size
- characters in the character array
- .I buf
- and return in the integer variable
- .I result
- either the
- number of characters read or the constant YY_NULL (0 on Unix systems)
- to indicate EOF. The default YY_INPUT reads from the
- global file-pointer "yyin".
- .LP
- A sample redefinition of YY_INPUT (in the definitions
- section of the input file):
- .nf
- %{
- #undef YY_INPUT
- #define YY_INPUT(buf,result,max_size) \
- { \
- int c = getchar(); \
- result = (c == EOF) ? YY_NULL : (buf[0] = c, 1); \
- }
- %}
- .fi
- This definition will change the input processing to occur
- one character at a time.
- .LP
- You also can add in things like keeping track of the
- input line number this way; but don't expect your scanner to
- go very fast.
- .LP
- When the scanner receives an end-of-file indication from YY_INPUT,
- it then checks the
- .B yywrap()
- function. If
- .B yywrap()
- returns false (zero), then it is assumed that the
- function has gone ahead and set up
- .I yyin
- to point to another input file, and scanning continues. If it returns
- true (non-zero), then the scanner terminates, returning 0 to its
- caller.
- .LP
- The default
- .B yywrap()
- always returns 1. Presently, to redefine it you must first
- "#undef yywrap", as it is currently implemented as a macro. As indicated
- by the hedging in the previous sentence, it may be changed to
- a true function in the near future.
- .LP
- The scanner writes its
- .B ECHO
- output to the
- .I yyout
- global (default, stdout), which may be redefined by the user simply
- by assigning it to some other
- .B FILE
- pointer.
- .SH START CONDITIONS
- .I flex
- provides a mechanism for conditionally activating rules. Any rule
- whose pattern is prefixed with "<sc>" will only be active when
- the scanner is in the start condition named "sc". For example,
- .nf
- <STRING>[^"]* { /* eat up the string body ... */
- ...
- }
- .fi
- will be active only when the scanner is in the "STRING" start
- condition, and
- .nf
- <INITIAL,STRING,QUOTE>\. { /* handle an escape ... */
- ...
- }
- .fi
- will be active only when the current start condition is
- either "INITIAL", "STRING", or "QUOTE".
- .LP
- Start conditions
- are declared in the definitions (first) section of the input
- using unindented lines beginning with either
- .B %s
- or
- .B %x
- followed by a list of names.
- The former declares
- .I inclusive
- start conditions, the latter
- .I exclusive
- start conditions. A start condition is activated using the
- .B BEGIN
- action. Until the next
- .B BEGIN
- action is executed, rules with the given start
- condition will be active and
- rules with other start conditions will be inactive.
- If the start condition is
- .I inclusive,
- then rules with no start conditions at all will also be active.
- If it is
- .I exclusive,
- then
- .I only
- rules qualified with the start condition will be active.
- A set of rules contingent on the same exclusive start condition
- describe a scanner which is independent of any of the other rules in the
- .I flex
- input. Because of this,
- exclusive start conditions make it easy to specify "mini-scanners"
- which scan portions of the input that are syntactically different
- from the rest (e.g., comments).
- .LP
- If the distinction between inclusive and exclusive start conditions
- is still a little vague, here's a simple example illustrating the
- connection between the two. The set of rules:
- .nf
- %s example
- %%
- <example>foo /* do something */
- .fi
- is equivalent to
- .nf
- %x example
- %%
- <INITIAL,example>foo /* do something */
- .fi
- .LP
- The default rule (to
- .B ECHO
- any unmatched character) remains active in start conditions.
- .LP
- .B BEGIN(0)
- returns to the original state where only the rules with
- no start conditions are active. This state can also be
- referred to as the start-condition "INITIAL", so
- .B BEGIN(INITIAL)
- is equivalent to
- .B BEGIN(0).
- (The parentheses around the start condition name are not required but
- are considered good style.)
- .LP
- .B BEGIN
- actions can also be given as indented code at the beginning
- of the rules section. For example, the following will cause
- the scanner to enter the "SPECIAL" start condition whenever
- .I yylex()
- is called and the global variable
- .I enter_special
- is true:
- .nf
- int enter_special;
- %x SPECIAL
- %%
- if ( enter_special )
- BEGIN(SPECIAL);
- <SPECIAL>blahblahblah
- ...more rules follow...
- .fi
- .LP
- To illustrate the uses of start conditions,
- here is a scanner which provides two different interpretations
- of a string like "123.456". By default it will treat it as
- as three tokens, the integer "123", a dot ('.'), and the integer "456".
- But if the string is preceded earlier in the line by the string
- "expect-floats"
- it will treat it as a single token, the floating-point number
- 123.456:
- .nf
- %{
- #include <math.h>
- %}
- %s expect
- %%
- expect-floats BEGIN(expect);
- <expect>[0-9]+"."[0-9]+ {
- printf( "found a float, = %f\n",
- atof( yytext ) );
- }
- <expect>\n {
- /* that's the end of the line, so
- * we need another "expect-number"
- * before we'll recognize any more
- * numbers
- */
- BEGIN(INITIAL);
- }
- [0-9]+ {
- printf( "found an integer, = %d\n",
- atoi( yytext ) );
- }
- "." printf( "found a dot\n" );
- .fi
- Here is a scanner which recognizes (and discards) C comments while
- maintaining a count of the current input line.
- .nf
- %x comment
- %%
- int line_num = 1;
- "/*" BEGIN(comment);
- <comment>[^*\n]* /* eat anything that's not a '*' */
- <comment>"*"+[^*/\n]* /* eat up '*'s not followed by '/'s */
- <comment>\n ++line_num;
- <comment>"*"+"/" BEGIN(INITIAL);
- .fi
- Note that start-conditions names are really integer values and
- can be stored as such. Thus, the above could be extended in the
- following fashion:
- .nf
- %x comment foo
- %%
- int line_num = 1;
- int comment_caller;
- "/*" {
- comment_caller = INITIAL;
- BEGIN(comment);
- }
- ...
- <foo>"/*" {
- comment_caller = foo;
- BEGIN(comment);
- }
- <comment>[^*\n]* /* eat anything that's not a '*' */
- <comment>"*"+[^*/\n]* /* eat up '*'s not followed by '/'s */
- <comment>\n ++line_num;
- <comment>"*"+"/" BEGIN(comment_caller);
- .fi
- One can then implement a "stack" of start conditions using an
- array of integers. (It is likely that such stacks will become
- a full-fledged
- .I flex
- feature in the future.) Note, though, that
- start conditions do not have their own name-space; %s's and %x's
- declare names in the same fashion as #define's.
- .SH MULTIPLE INPUT BUFFERS
- Some scanners (such as those which support "include" files)
- require reading from several input streams. As
- .I flex
- scanners do a large amount of buffering, one cannot control
- where the next input will be read from by simply writing a
- .B YY_INPUT
- which is sensitive to the scanning context.
- .B YY_INPUT
- is only called when the scanner reaches the end of its buffer, which
- may be a long time after scanning a statement such as an "include"
- which requires switching the input source.
- .LP
- To negotiate these sorts of problems,
- .I flex
- provides a mechanism for creating and switching between multiple
- input buffers. An input buffer is created by using:
- .nf
- YY_BUFFER_STATE yy_create_buffer( FILE *file, int size )
- .fi
- which takes a
- .I FILE
- pointer and a size and creates a buffer associated with the given
- file and large enough to hold
- .I size
- characters (when in doubt, use
- .B YY_BUF_SIZE
- for the size). It returns a
- .B YY_BUFFER_STATE
- handle, which may then be passed to other routines:
- .nf
- void yy_switch_to_buffer( YY_BUFFER_STATE new_buffer )
- .fi
- switches the scanner's input buffer so subsequent tokens will
- come from
- .I new_buffer.
- Note that
- .B yy_switch_to_buffer()
- may be used by yywrap() to sets things up for continued scanning, instead
- of opening a new file and pointing
- .I yyin
- at it.
- .nf
- void yy_delete_buffer( YY_BUFFER_STATE buffer )
- .fi
- is used to reclaim the storage associated with a buffer.
- .LP
- .B yy_new_buffer()
- is an alias for
- .B yy_create_buffer(),
- provided for compatibility with the C++ use of
- .I new
- and
- .I delete
- for creating and destroying dynamic objects.
- .LP
- Finally, the
- .B YY_CURRENT_BUFFER
- macro returns a
- .B YY_BUFFER_STATE
- handle to the current buffer.
- .LP
- Here is an example of using these features for writing a scanner
- which expands include files (the
- .B <<EOF>>
- feature is discussed below):
- .nf
- /* the "incl" state is used for picking up the name
- * of an include file
- */
- %x incl
- %{
- #define MAX_INCLUDE_DEPTH 10
- YY_BUFFER_STATE include_stack[MAX_INCLUDE_DEPTH];
- int include_stack_ptr = 0;
- %}
- %%
- include BEGIN(incl);
- [a-z]+ ECHO;
- [^a-z\n]*\n? ECHO;
- <incl>[ \t]* /* eat the whitespace */
- <incl>[^ \t\n]+ { /* got the include file name */
- if ( include_stack_ptr >= MAX_INCLUDE_DEPTH )
- {
- fprintf( stderr, "Includes nested too deeply" );
- exit( 1 );
- }
- include_stack[include_stack_ptr++] =
- YY_CURRENT_BUFFER;
- yyin = fopen( yytext, "r" );
- if ( ! yyin )
- error( ... );
- yy_switch_to_buffer(
- yy_create_buffer( yyin, YY_BUF_SIZE ) );
- BEGIN(INITIAL);
- }
- <<EOF>> {
- if ( --include_stack_ptr < 0 )
- {
- yyterminate();
- }
- else
- yy_switch_to_buffer(
- include_stack[include_stack_ptr] );
- }
- .fi
- .SH END-OF-FILE RULES
- The special rule "<<EOF>>" indicates
- actions which are to be taken when an end-of-file is
- encountered and yywrap() returns non-zero (i.e., indicates
- no further files to process). The action must finish
- by doing one of four things:
- .IP -
- the special
- .B YY_NEW_FILE
- action, if
- .I yyin
- has been pointed at a new file to process;
- .IP -
- a
- .I return
- statement;
- .IP -
- the special
- .B yyterminate()
- action;
- .IP -
- or, switching to a new buffer using
- .B yy_switch_to_buffer()
- as shown in the example above.
- .LP
- <<EOF>> rules may not be used with other
- patterns; they may only be qualified with a list of start
- conditions. If an unqualified <<EOF>> rule is given, it
- applies to
- .I all
- start conditions which do not already have <<EOF>> actions. To
- specify an <<EOF>> rule for only the initial start condition, use
- .nf
- <INITIAL><<EOF>>
- .fi
- .LP
- These rules are useful for catching things like unclosed comments.
- An example:
- .nf
- %x quote
- %%
- ...other rules for dealing with quotes...
- <quote><<EOF>> {
- error( "unterminated quote" );
- yyterminate();
- }
- <<EOF>> {
- if ( *++filelist )
- {
- yyin = fopen( *filelist, "r" );
- YY_NEW_FILE;
- }
- else
- yyterminate();
- }
- .fi
- .SH MISCELLANEOUS MACROS
- The macro
- .B YY_USER_ACTION
- can be redefined to provide an action
- which is always executed prior to the matched rule's action. For example,
- it could be #define'd to call a routine to convert yytext to lower-case.
- .LP
- The macro
- .B YY_USER_INIT
- may be redefined to provide an action which is always executed before
- the first scan (and before the scanner's internal initializations are done).
- For example, it could be used to call a routine to read
- in a data table or open a logging file.
- .LP
- In the generated scanner, the actions are all gathered in one large
- switch statement and separated using
- .B YY_BREAK,
- which may be redefined. By default, it is simply a "break", to separate
- each rule's action from the following rule's.
- Redefining
- .B YY_BREAK
- allows, for example, C++ users to
- #define YY_BREAK to do nothing (while being very careful that every
- rule ends with a "break" or a "return"!) to avoid suffering from
- unreachable statement warnings where because a rule's action ends with
- "return", the
- .B YY_BREAK
- is inaccessible.
- .SH INTERFACING WITH YACC
- One of the main uses of
- .I flex
- is as a companion to the
- .I yacc
- parser-generator.
- .I yacc
- parsers expect to call a routine named
- .B yylex()
- to find the next input token. The routine is supposed to
- return the type of the next token as well as putting any associated
- value in the global
- .B yylval.
- To use
- .I flex
- with
- .I yacc,
- one specifies the
- .B -d
- option to
- .I yacc
- to instruct it to generate the file
- .B y.tab.h
- containing definitions of all the
- .B %tokens
- appearing in the
- .I yacc
- input. This file is then included in the
- .I flex
- scanner. For example, if one of the tokens is "TOK_NUMBER",
- part of the scanner might look like:
- .nf
- %{
- #include "y.tab.h"
- %}
- %%
- [0-9]+ yylval = atoi( yytext ); return TOK_NUMBER;
- .fi
- .SH TRANSLATION TABLE
- In the name of POSIX compliance,
- .I flex
- supports a
- .I translation table
- for mapping input characters into groups.
- The table is specified in the first section, and its format looks like:
- .nf
- %t
- 1 abcd
- 2 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
- 52 0123456789
- 6 \t\ \n
- %t
- .fi
- This example specifies that the characters 'a', 'b', 'c', and 'd'
- are to all be lumped into group #1, upper-case letters
- in group #2, digits in group #52, tabs, blanks, and newlines into
- group #6, and
- .I
- no other characters will appear in the patterns.
- The group numbers are actually disregarded by
- .I flex;
- .B %t
- serves, though, to lump characters together. Given the above
- table, for example, the pattern "a(AA)*5" is equivalent to "d(ZQ)*0".
- They both say, "match any character in group #1, followed by
- zero-or-more pairs of characters
- from group #2, followed by a character from group #52." Thus
- .B %t
- provides a crude way for introducing equivalence classes into
- the scanner specification.
- .LP
- Note that the
- .B -i
- option (see below) coupled with the equivalence classes which
- .I flex
- automatically generates take care of virtually all the instances
- when one might consider using
- .B %t.
- But what the hell, it's there if you want it.
- .SH OPTIONS
- .I flex
- has the following options:
- .TP
- .B -b
- Generate backtracking information to
- .I lex.backtrack.
- This is a list of scanner states which require backtracking
- and the input characters on which they do so. By adding rules one
- can remove backtracking states. If all backtracking states
- are eliminated and
- .B -f
- or
- .B -F
- is used, the generated scanner will run faster (see the
- .B -p
- flag). Only users who wish to squeeze every last cycle out of their
- scanners need worry about this option. (See the section on PERFORMANCE
- CONSIDERATIONS below.)
- .TP
- .B -c
- is a do-nothing, deprecated option included for POSIX compliance.
- .IP
- .B NOTE:
- in previous releases of
- .I flex
- .B -c
- specified table-compression options. This functionality is
- now given by the
- .B -C
- flag. To ease the the impact of this change, when
- .I flex
- encounters
- .B -c,
- it currently issues a warning message and assumes that
- .B -C
- was desired instead. In the future this "promotion" of
- .B -c
- to
- .B -C
- will go away in the name of full POSIX compliance (unless
- the POSIX meaning is removed first).
- .TP
- .B -d
- makes the generated scanner run in
- .I debug
- mode. Whenever a pattern is recognized and the global
- .B yy_flex_debug
- is non-zero (which is the default),
- the scanner will write to
- .I stderr
- a line of the form:
- .nf
- --accepting rule at line 53 ("the matched text")
- .fi
- The line number refers to the location of the rule in the file
- defining the scanner (i.e., the file that was fed to flex). Messages
- are also generated when the scanner backtracks, accepts the
- default rule, reaches the end of its input buffer (or encounters
- a NUL; at this point, the two look the same as far as the scanner's concerned),
- or reaches an end-of-file.
- .TP
- .B -f
- specifies (take your pick)
- .I full table
- or
- .I fast scanner.
- No table compression is done. The result is large but fast.
- This option is equivalent to
- .B -Cf
- (see below).
- .TP
- .B -i
- instructs
- .I flex
- to generate a
- .I case-insensitive
- scanner. The case of letters given in the
- .I flex
- input patterns will
- be ignored, and tokens in the input will be matched regardless of case. The
- matched text given in
- .I yytext
- will have the preserved case (i.e., it will not be folded).
- .TP
- .B -n
- is another do-nothing, deprecated option included only for
- POSIX compliance.
- .TP
- .B -p
- generates a performance report to stderr. The report
- consists of comments regarding features of the
- .I flex
- input file which will cause a loss of performance in the resulting scanner.
- Note that the use of
- .I REJECT
- and variable trailing context (see the BUGS section in flex(1))
- entails a substantial performance penalty; use of
- .I yymore(),
- the
- .B ^
- operator,
- and the
- .B -I
- flag entail minor performance penalties.
- .TP
- .B -s
- causes the
- .I default rule
- (that unmatched scanner input is echoed to
- .I stdout)
- to be suppressed. If the scanner encounters input that does not
- match any of its rules, it aborts with an error. This option is
- useful for finding holes in a scanner's rule set.
- .TP
- .B -t
- instructs
- .I flex
- to write the scanner it generates to standard output instead
- of
- .B lex.yy.c.
- .TP
- .B -v
- specifies that
- .I flex
- should write to
- .I stderr
- a summary of statistics regarding the scanner it generates.
- Most of the statistics are meaningless to the casual
- .I flex
- user, but the
- first line identifies the version of
- .I flex,
- which is useful for figuring
- out where you stand with respect to patches and new releases,
- and the next two lines give the date when the scanner was created
- and a summary of the flags which were in effect.
- .TP
- .B -F
- specifies that the
- .I fast
- scanner table representation should be used. This representation is
- about as fast as the full table representation
- .RB ( -f ),
- and for some sets of patterns will be considerably smaller (and for
- others, larger). In general, if the pattern set contains both "keywords"
- and a catch-all, "identifier" rule, such as in the set:
- .nf
- "case" return TOK_CASE;
- "switch" return TOK_SWITCH;
- ...
- "default" return TOK_DEFAULT;
- [a-z]+ return TOK_ID;
- .fi
- then you're better off using the full table representation. If only
- the "identifier" rule is present and you then use a hash table or some such
- to detect the keywords, you're better off using
- .BR -F .
- .IP
- This option is equivalent to
- .B -CF
- (see below).
- .TP
- .B -I
- instructs
- .I flex
- to generate an
- .I interactive
- scanner. Normally, scanners generated by
- .I flex
- always look ahead one
- character before deciding that a rule has been matched. At the cost of
- some scanning overhead,
- .I flex
- will generate a scanner which only looks ahead
- when needed. Such scanners are called
- .I interactive
- because if you want to write a scanner for an interactive system such as a
- command shell, you will probably want the user's input to be terminated
- with a newline, and without
- .B -I
- the user will have to type a character in addition to the newline in order
- to have the newline recognized. This leads to dreadful interactive
- performance.
- .IP
- If all this seems to confusing, here's the general rule: if a human will
- be typing in input to your scanner, use
- .B -I,
- otherwise don't; if you don't care about squeezing the utmost performance
- from your scanner and you
- don't want to make any assumptions about the input to your scanner,
- use
- .B -I.
- .IP
- Note,
- .B -I
- cannot be used in conjunction with
- .I full
- or
- .I fast tables,
- i.e., the
- .B -f, -F, -Cf,
- or
- .B -CF
- flags.
- .TP
- .B -L
- instructs
- .I flex
- not to generate
- .B #line
- directives. Without this option,
- .I flex
- peppers the generated scanner
- with #line directives so error messages in the actions will be correctly
- located with respect to the original
- .I flex
- input file, and not to
- the fairly meaningless line numbers of
- .B lex.yy.c.
- (Unfortunately
- .I flex
- does not presently generate the necessary directives
- to "retarget" the line numbers for those parts of
- .B lex.yy.c
- which it generated. So if there is an error in the generated code,
- a meaningless line number is reported.)
- .TP
- .B -T
- makes
- .I flex
- run in
- .I trace
- mode. It will generate a lot of messages to
- .I stdout
- concerning
- the form of the input and the resultant non-deterministic and deterministic
- finite automata. This option is mostly for use in maintaining
- .I flex.
- .TP
- .B -8
- instructs
- .I flex
- to generate an 8-bit scanner, i.e., one which can recognize 8-bit
- characters. On some sites,
- .I flex
- is installed with this option as the default. On others, the default
- is 7-bit characters. To see which is the case, check the verbose
- .B (-v)
- output for "equivalence classes created". If the denominator of
- the number shown is 128, then by default
- .I flex
- is generating 7-bit characters. If it is 256, then the default is
- 8-bit characters and the
- .B -8
- flag is not required (but may be a good idea to keep the scanner
- specification portable). Feeding a 7-bit scanner 8-bit characters
- will result in infinite loops, bus errors, or other such fireworks,
- so when in doubt, use the flag. Note that if equivalence classes
- are used, 8-bit scanners take only slightly more table space than
- 7-bit scanners (128 bytes, to be exact); if equivalence classes are
- not used, however, then the tables may grow up to twice their
- 7-bit size.
- .TP
- .B -C[efmF]
- controls the degree of table compression.
- .IP
- .B -Ce
- directs
- .I flex
- to construct
- .I equivalence classes,
- i.e., sets of characters
- which have identical lexical properties (for example, if the only
- appearance of digits in the
- .I flex
- input is in the character class
- "[0-9]" then the digits '0', '1', ..., '9' will all be put
- in the same equivalence class). Equivalence classes usually give
- dramatic reductions in the final table/object file sizes (typically
- a factor of 2-5) and are pretty cheap performance-wise (one array
- look-up per character scanned).
- .IP
- .B -Cf
- specifies that the
- .I full
- scanner tables should be generated -
- .I flex
- should not compress the
- tables by taking advantages of similar transition functions for
- different states.
- .IP
- .B -CF
- specifies that the alternate fast scanner representation (described
- above under the
- .B -F
- flag)
- should be used.
- .IP
- .B -Cm
- directs
- .I flex
- to construct
- .I meta-equivalence classes,
- which are sets of equivalence classes (or characters, if equivalence
- classes are not being used) that are commonly used together. Meta-equivalence
- classes are often a big win when using compressed tables, but they
- have a moderate performance impact (one or two "if" tests and one
- array look-up per character scanned).
- .IP
- A lone
- .B -C
- specifies that the scanner tables should be compressed but neither
- equivalence classes nor meta-equivalence classes should be used.
- .IP
- The options
- .B -Cf
- or
- .B -CF
- and
- .B -Cm
- do not make sense together - there is no opportunity for meta-equivalence
- classes if the table is not being compressed. Otherwise the options
- may be freely mixed.
- .IP
- The default setting is
- .B -Cem,
- which specifies that
- .I flex
- should generate equivalence classes
- and meta-equivalence classes. This setting provides the highest
- degree of table compression. You can trade off
- faster-executing scanners at the cost of larger tables with
- the following generally being true:
- .nf
- slowest & smallest
- -Cem
- -Cm
- -Ce
- -C
- -C{f,F}e
- -C{f,F}
- fastest & largest
- .fi
- Note that scanners with the smallest tables are usually generated and
- compiled the quickest, so
- during development you will usually want to use the default, maximal
- compression.
- .IP
- .B -Cfe
- is often a good compromise between speed and size for production
- scanners.
- .IP
- .B -C
- options are not cumulative; whenever the flag is encountered, the
- previous -C settings are forgotten.
- .TP
- .B -Sskeleton_file
- overrides the default skeleton file from which
- .I flex
- constructs its scanners. You'll never need this option unless you are doing
- .I flex
- maintenance or development.
- .SH PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS
- The main design goal of
- .I flex
- is that it generate high-performance scanners. It has been optimized
- for dealing well with large sets of rules. Aside from the effects
- of table compression on scanner speed outlined above,
- there are a number of options/actions which degrade performance. These
- are, from most expensive to least:
- .nf
- REJECT
- pattern sets that require backtracking
- arbitrary trailing context
- '^' beginning-of-line operator
- yymore()
- .fi
- with the first three all being quite expensive and the last two
- being quite cheap.
- .LP
- .B REJECT
- should be avoided at all costs when performance is important.
- It is a particularly expensive option.
- .LP
- Getting rid of backtracking is messy and often may be an enormous
- amount of work for a complicated scanner. In principal, one begins
- by using the
- .B -b
- flag to generate a
- .I lex.backtrack
- file. For example, on the input
- .nf
- %%
- foo return TOK_KEYWORD;
- foobar return TOK_KEYWORD;
- .fi
- the file looks like:
- .nf
- State #6 is non-accepting -
- associated rule line numbers:
- 2 3
- out-transitions: [ o ]
- jam-transitions: EOF [ \001-n p-\177 ]
- State #8 is non-accepting -
- associated rule line numbers:
- 3
- out-transitions: [ a ]
- jam-transitions: EOF [ \001-` b-\177 ]
- State #9 is non-accepting -
- associated rule line numbers:
- 3
- out-transitions: [ r ]
- jam-transitions: EOF [ \001-q s-\177 ]
- Compressed tables always backtrack.
- .fi
- The first few lines tell us that there's a scanner state in
- which it can make a transition on an 'o' but not on any other
- character, and that in that state the currently scanned text does not match
- any rule. The state occurs when trying to match the rules found
- at lines 2 and 3 in the input file.
- If the scanner is in that state and then reads
- something other than an 'o', it will have to backtrack to find
- a rule which is matched. With
- a bit of headscratching one can see that this must be the
- state it's in when it has seen "fo". When this has happened,
- if anything other than another 'o' is seen, the scanner will
- have to back up to simply match the 'f' (by the default rule).
- .LP
- The comment regarding State #8 indicates there's a problem
- when "foob" has been scanned. Indeed, on any character other
- than a 'b', the scanner will have to back up to accept "foo".
- Similarly, the comment for State #9 concerns when "fooba" has
- been scanned.
- .LP
- The final comment reminds us that there's no point going to
- all the trouble of removing backtracking from the rules unless
- we're using
- .B -f
- or
- .B -F,
- since there's no performance gain doing so with compressed scanners.
- .LP
- The way to remove the backtracking is to add "error" rules:
- .nf
- %%
- foo return TOK_KEYWORD;
- foobar return TOK_KEYWORD;
- fooba |
- foob |
- fo {
- /* false alarm, not really a keyword */
- return TOK_ID;
- }
- .fi
- .LP
- Eliminating backtracking among a list of keywords can also be
- done using a "catch-all" rule:
- .nf
- %%
- foo return TOK_KEYWORD;
- foobar return TOK_KEYWORD;
- [a-z]+ return TOK_ID;
- .fi
- This is usually the best solution when appropriate.
- .LP
- Backtracking messages tend to cascade.
- With a complicated set of rules it's not uncommon to get hundreds
- of messages. If one can decipher them, though, it often
- only takes a dozen or so rules to eliminate the backtracking (though
- it's easy to make a mistake and have an error rule accidentally match
- a valid token. A possible future
- .I flex
- feature will be to automatically add rules to eliminate backtracking).
- .LP
- .I Variable
- trailing context (where both the leading and trailing parts do not have
- a fixed length) entails almost the same performance loss as
- .I REJECT
- (i.e., substantial). So when possible a rule like:
- .nf
- %%
- mouse|rat/(cat|dog) run();
- .fi
- is better written:
- .nf
- %%
- mouse/cat|dog run();
- rat/cat|dog run();
- .fi
- or as
- .nf
- %%
- mouse|rat/cat run();
- mouse|rat/dog run();
- .fi
- Note that here the special '|' action does
- .I not
- provide any savings, and can even make things worse (see
- .B BUGS
- in flex(1)).
- .LP
- Another area where the user can increase a scanner's performance
- (and one that's easier to implement) arises from the fact that
- the longer the tokens matched, the faster the scanner will run.
- This is because with long tokens the processing of most input
- characters takes place in the (short) inner scanning loop, and
- does not often have to go through the additional work of setting up
- the scanning environment (e.g.,
- .B yytext)
- for the action. Recall the scanner for C comments:
- .nf
- %x comment
- %%
- int line_num = 1;
- "/*" BEGIN(comment);
- <comment>[^*\n]*
- <comment>"*"+[^*/\n]*
- <comment>\n ++line_num;
- <comment>"*"+"/" BEGIN(INITIAL);
- .fi
- This could be sped up by writing it as:
- .nf
- %x comment
- %%
- int line_num = 1;
- "/*" BEGIN(comment);
- <comment>[^*\n]*
- <comment>[^*\n]*\n ++line_num;
- <comment>"*"+[^*/\n]*
- <comment>"*"+[^*/\n]*\n ++line_num;
- <comment>"*"+"/" BEGIN(INITIAL);
- .fi
- Now instead of each newline requiring the processing of another
- action, recognizing the newlines is "distributed" over the other rules
- to keep the matched text as long as possible. Note that
- .I adding
- rules does
- .I not
- slow down the scanner! The speed of the scanner is independent
- of the number of rules or (modulo the considerations given at the
- beginning of this section) how complicated the rules are with
- regard to operators such as '*' and '|'.
- .LP
- A final example in speeding up a scanner: suppose you want to scan
- through a file containing identifiers and keywords, one per line
- and with no other extraneous characters, and recognize all the
- keywords. A natural first approach is:
- .nf
- %%
- asm |
- auto |
- break |
- ... etc ...
- volatile |
- while /* it's a keyword */
- .|\n /* it's not a keyword */
- .fi
- To eliminate the back-tracking, introduce a catch-all rule:
- .nf
- %%
- asm |
- auto |
- break |
- ... etc ...
- volatile |
- while /* it's a keyword */
- [a-z]+ |
- .|\n /* it's not a keyword */
- .fi
- Now, if it's guaranteed that there's exactly one word per line,
- then we can reduce the total number of matches by a half by
- merging in the recognition of newlines with that of the other
- tokens:
- .nf
- %%
- asm\n |
- auto\n |
- break\n |
- ... etc ...
- volatile\n |
- while\n /* it's a keyword */
- [a-z]+\n |
- .|\n /* it's not a keyword */
- .fi
- One has to be careful here, as we have now reintroduced backtracking
- into the scanner. In particular, while
- .I we
- know that there will never be any characters in the input stream
- other than letters or newlines,
- .I flex
- can't figure this out, and it will plan for possibly needing backtracking
- when it has scanned a token like "auto" and then the next character
- is something other than a newline or a letter. Previously it would
- then just match the "auto" rule and be done, but now it has no "auto"
- rule, only a "auto\n" rule. To eliminate the possibility of backtracking,
- we could either duplicate all rules but without final newlines, or,
- since we never expect to encounter such an input and therefore don't
- how it's classified, we can introduce one more catch-all rule, this
- one which doesn't include a newline:
- .nf
- %%
- asm\n |
- auto\n |
- break\n |
- ... etc ...
- volatile\n |
- while\n /* it's a keyword */
- [a-z]+\n |
- [a-z]+ |
- .|\n /* it's not a keyword */
- .fi
- Compiled with
- .B -Cf,
- this is about as fast as one can get a
- .I flex
- scanner to go for this particular problem.
- .LP
- A final note:
- .I flex
- is slow when matching NUL's, particularly when a token contains
- multiple NUL's.
- It's best to write rules which match
- .I short
- amounts of text if it's anticipated that the text will often include NUL's.
- .SH INCOMPATIBILITIES WITH LEX AND POSIX
- .I flex
- is a rewrite of the Unix
- .I lex
- tool (the two implementations do not share any code, though),
- with some extensions and incompatibilities, both of which
- are of concern to those who wish to write scanners acceptable
- to either implementation. At present, the POSIX
- .I lex
- draft is
- very close to the original
- .I lex
- implementation, so some of these
- incompatibilities are also in conflict with the POSIX draft. But
- the intent is that except as noted below,
- .I flex
- as it presently stands will
- ultimately be POSIX conformant (i.e., that those areas of conflict with
- the POSIX draft will be resolved in
- .I flex's
- favor). Please bear in
- mind that all the comments which follow are with regard to the POSIX
- .I draft
- standard of Summer 1989, and not the final document (or subsequent
- drafts); they are included so
- .I flex
- users can be aware of the standardization issues and those areas where
- .I flex
- may in the near future undergo changes incompatible with
- its current definition.
- .LP
- .I flex
- is fully compatible with
- .I lex
- with the following exceptions:
- .IP -
- The undocumented
- .I lex
- scanner internal variable
- .B yylineno
- is not supported. It is difficult to support this option efficiently,
- since it requires examining every character scanned and reexamining
- the characters when the scanner backs up.
- Things get more complicated when the end of buffer or file is reached or a
- NUL is scanned (since the scan must then be restarted with the proper line
- number count), or the user uses the yyless(), unput(), or REJECT actions,
- or the multiple input buffer functions.
- .IP
- The fix is to add rules which, upon seeing a newline, increment
- yylineno. This is usually an easy process, though it can be a drag if some
- of the patterns can match multiple newlines along with other characters.
- .IP
- yylineno is not part of the POSIX draft.
- .IP -
- The
- .B input()
- routine is not redefinable, though it may be called to read characters
- following whatever has been matched by a rule. If
- .B input()
- encounters an end-of-file the normal
- .B yywrap()
- processing is done. A ``real'' end-of-file is returned by
- .B input()
- as
- .I EOF.
- .IP
- Input is instead controlled by redefining the
- .B YY_INPUT
- macro.
- .IP
- The
- .I flex
- restriction that
- .B input()
- cannot be redefined is in accordance with the POSIX draft, but
- .B YY_INPUT
- has not yet been accepted into the draft (and probably won't; it looks
- like the draft will simply not specify any way of controlling the
- scanner's input other than by making an initial assignment to
- .I yyin).
- .IP -
- .I flex
- scanners do not use stdio for input. Because of this, when writing an
- interactive scanner one must explicitly call fflush() on the
- stream associated with the terminal after writing out a prompt.
- With
- .I lex
- such writes are automatically flushed since
- .I lex
- scanners use
- .B getchar()
- for their input. Also, when writing interactive scanners with
- .I flex,
- the
- .B -I
- flag must be used.
- .IP -
- .I flex
- scanners are not as reentrant as
- .I lex
- scanners. In particular, if you have an interactive scanner and
- an interrupt handler which long-jumps out of the scanner, and
- the scanner is subsequently called again, you may get the following
- message:
- .nf
- fatal flex scanner internal error--end of buffer missed
- .fi
- To reenter the scanner, first use
- .nf
- yyrestart( yyin );
- .fi
- .IP -
- .B output()
- is not supported.
- Output from the
- .B ECHO
- macro is done to the file-pointer
- .I yyout
- (default
- .I stdout).
- .IP
- The POSIX draft mentions that an
- .B output()
- routine exists but currently gives no details as to what it does.
- .IP -
- .I lex
- does not support exclusive start conditions (%x), though they
- are in the current POSIX draft.
- .IP -
- When definitions are expanded,
- .I flex
- encloses them in parentheses.
- With lex, the following:
- .nf
- NAME [A-Z][A-Z0-9]*
- %%
- foo{NAME}? printf( "Found it\n" );
- %%
- .fi
- will not match the string "foo" because when the macro
- is expanded the rule is equivalent to "foo[A-Z][A-Z0-9]*?"
- and the precedence is such that the '?' is associated with
- "[A-Z0-9]*". With
- .I flex,
- the rule will be expanded to
- "foo([A-Z][A-Z0-9]*)?" and so the string "foo" will match.
- Note that because of this, the
- .B ^, $, <s>, /,
- and
- .B <<EOF>>
- operators cannot be used in a
- .I flex
- definition.
- .IP
- The POSIX draft interpretation is the same as
- .I flex's.
- .IP -
- To specify a character class which matches anything but a left bracket (']'),
- in
- .I lex
- one can use "[^]]" but with
- .I flex
- one must use "[^\]]". The latter works with
- .I lex,
- too.
- .IP -
- The
- .I lex
- .B %r
- (generate a Ratfor scanner) option is not supported. It is not part
- of the POSIX draft.
- .IP -
- If you are providing your own yywrap() routine, you must include a
- "#undef yywrap" in the definitions section (section 1). Note that
- the "#undef" will have to be enclosed in %{}'s.
- .IP
- The POSIX draft
- specifies that yywrap() is a function and this is very unlikely to change; so
- .I flex users are warned
- that
- .B yywrap()
- is likely to be changed to a function in the near future.
- .IP -
- After a call to
- .B unput(),
- .I yytext
- and
- .I yyleng
- are undefined until the next token is matched. This is not the case with
- .I lex
- or the present POSIX draft.
- .IP -
- The precedence of the
- .B {}
- (numeric range) operator is different.
- .I lex
- interprets "abc{1,3}" as "match one, two, or
- three occurrences of 'abc'", whereas
- .I flex
- interprets it as "match 'ab'
- followed by one, two, or three occurrences of 'c'". The latter is
- in agreement with the current POSIX draft.
- .IP -
- The precedence of the
- .B ^
- operator is different.
- .I lex
- interprets "^foo|bar" as "match either 'foo' at the beginning of a line,
- or 'bar' anywhere", whereas
- .I flex
- interprets it as "match either 'foo' or 'bar' if they come at the beginning
- of a line". The latter is in agreement with the current POSIX draft.
- .IP -
- To refer to yytext outside of the scanner source file,
- the correct definition with
- .I flex
- is "extern char *yytext" rather than "extern char yytext[]".
- This is contrary to the current POSIX draft but a point on which
- .I flex
- will not be changing, as the array representation entails a
- serious performance penalty. It is hoped that the POSIX draft will
- be emended to support the
- .I flex
- variety of declaration (as this is a fairly painless change to
- require of
- .I lex
- users).
- .IP -
- .I yyin
- is
- .I initialized
- by
- .I lex
- to be
- .I stdin;
- .I flex,
- on the other hand,
- initializes
- .I yyin
- to NULL
- and then
- .I assigns
- it to
- .I stdin
- the first time the scanner is called, providing
- .I yyin
- has not already been assigned to a non-NULL value. The difference is
- subtle, but the net effect is that with
- .I flex
- scanners,
- .I yyin
- does not have a valid value until the scanner has been called.
- .IP -
- The special table-size declarations such as
- .B %a
- supported by
- .I lex
- are not required by
- .I flex
- scanners;
- .I flex
- ignores them.
- .IP -
- The name
- .B FLEX_SCANNER
- is #define'd so scanners may be written for use with either
- .I flex
- or
- .I lex.
- .LP
- The following
- .I flex
- features are not included in
- .I lex
- or the POSIX draft standard:
- .nf
- yyterminate()
- <<EOF>>
- YY_DECL
- #line directives
- %{}'s around actions
- yyrestart()
- comments beginning with '#' (deprecated)
- multiple actions on a line
- .fi
- This last feature refers to the fact that with
- .I flex
- you can put multiple actions on the same line, separated with
- semi-colons, while with
- .I lex,
- the following
- .nf
- foo handle_foo(); ++num_foos_seen;
- .fi
- is (rather surprisingly) truncated to
- .nf
- foo handle_foo();
- .fi
- .I flex
- does not truncate the action. Actions that are not enclosed in
- braces are simply terminated at the end of the line.
- .SH DIAGNOSTICS
- .I reject_used_but_not_detected undefined
- or
- .I yymore_used_but_not_detected undefined -
- These errors can occur at compile time. They indicate that the
- scanner uses
- .B REJECT
- or
- .B yymore()
- but that
- .I flex
- failed to notice the fact, meaning that
- .I flex
- scanned the first two sections looking for occurrences of these actions
- and failed to find any, but somehow you snuck some in (via a #include
- file, for example). Make an explicit reference to the action in your
- .I flex
- input file. (Note that previously
- .I flex
- supported a
- .B %used/%unused
- mechanism for dealing with this problem; this feature is still supported
- but now deprecated, and will go away soon unless the author hears from
- people who can argue compellingly that they need it.)
- .LP
- .I flex scanner jammed -
- a scanner compiled with
- .B -s
- has encountered an input string which wasn't matched by
- any of its rules.
- .LP
- .I flex input buffer overflowed -
- a scanner rule matched a string long enough to overflow the
- scanner's internal input buffer (16K bytes by default - controlled by
- .B YY_BUF_SIZE
- in "flex.skel". Note that to redefine this macro, you must first
- .B #undefine
- it).
- .LP
- .I scanner requires -8 flag -
- Your scanner specification includes recognizing 8-bit characters and
- you did not specify the -8 flag (and your site has not installed flex
- with -8 as the default).
- .LP
- .I
- fatal flex scanner internal error--end of buffer missed -
- This can occur in an scanner which is reentered after a long-jump
- has jumped out (or over) the scanner's activation frame. Before
- reentering the scanner, use:
- .nf
- yyrestart( yyin );
- .fi
- .LP
- .I too many %t classes! -
- You managed to put every single character into its own %t class.
- .I flex
- requires that at least one of the classes share characters.
- .SH DEFICIENCIES / BUGS
- See flex(1).
- .SH "SEE ALSO"
- .LP
- flex(1), lex(1), yacc(1), sed(1), awk(1).
- .LP
- M. E. Lesk and E. Schmidt,
- .I LEX - Lexical Analyzer Generator
- .SH AUTHOR
- Vern Paxson, with the help of many ideas and much inspiration from
- Van Jacobson. Original version by Jef Poskanzer. The fast table
- representation is a partial implementation of a design done by Van
- Jacobson. The implementation was done by Kevin Gong and Vern Paxson.
- .LP
- Thanks to the many
- .I flex
- beta-testers, feedbackers, and contributors, especially Casey
- Leedom, benson@odi.com, Keith Bostic,
- Frederic Brehm, Nick Christopher, Jason Coughlin,
- Scott David Daniels, Leo Eskin,
- Chris Faylor, Eric Goldman, Eric
- Hughes, Jeffrey R. Jones, Kevin B. Kenny, Ronald Lamprecht,
- Greg Lee, Craig Leres, Mohamed el Lozy, Jim Meyering, Marc Nozell, Esmond Pitt,
- Jef Poskanzer, Jim Roskind,
- Dave Tallman, Frank Whaley, Ken Yap, and those whose names
- have slipped my marginal mail-archiving skills but whose contributions
- are appreciated all the same.
- .LP
- Thanks to Keith Bostic, John Gilmore, Craig Leres, Bob
- Mulcahy, Rich Salz, and Richard Stallman for help with various distribution
- headaches.
- .LP
- Thanks to Esmond Pitt and Earle Horton for 8-bit character support;
- to Benson Margulies and Fred
- Burke for C++ support; to Ove Ewerlid for the basics of support for
- NUL's; and to Eric Hughes for the basics of support for multiple buffers.
- .LP
- Work is being done on extending
- .I flex
- to generate scanners in which the
- state machine is directly represented in C code rather than tables.
- These scanners may well be substantially faster than those generated
- using -f or -F. If you are working in this area and are interested
- in comparing notes and seeing whether redundant work can be avoided,
- contact Ove Ewerlid (ewerlid@mizar.DoCS.UU.SE).
- .LP
- This work was primarily done when I was at the Real Time Systems Group
- at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in Berkeley, CA. Many thanks to all there
- for the support I received.
- .LP
- Send comments to:
- .nf
- Vern Paxson
- Computer Science Department
- 4126 Upson Hall
- Cornell University
- Ithaca, NY 14853-7501
- vern@cs.cornell.edu
- decvax!cornell!vern
- .fi