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- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- NAME
- flexdoc - fast lexical analyzer generator
- SYNOPSIS
- flex [-bcdfinpstvFILT8 -C[efmF] -Sskeleton] [filename ...]
- DESCRIPTION
- flex is a tool for generating scanners: programs which recognized lexical
- patterns in text. flex reads the given input files, or its standard
- input if no file names are given, for a description of a scanner to
- generate. The description is in the form of pairs of regular expressions
- and C code, called rules. flex generates as output a C source file,
- lex.yy.c, which defines a routine yylex(). This file is compiled and
- linked with the -lfl library to produce an executable. When the
- executable is run, it analyzes its input for occurrences of the regular
- expressions. Whenever it finds one, it executes the corresponding C
- code.
- SOME SIMPLE EXAMPLES
- First some simple examples to get the flavor of how one uses flex. The
- following flex input specifies a scanner which whenever it encounters the
- string "username" will replace it with the user's login name:
- %%
- username printf( "%s", getlogin() );
- By default, any text not matched by a flex scanner is copied to the
- output, so the net effect of this scanner is to copy its input file to
- its output with each occurrence of "username" expanded. In this input,
- there is just one rule. "username" is the pattern and the "printf" is
- the action. The "%%" marks the beginning of the rules.
- Here's another simple example:
- int num_lines = 0, num_chars = 0;
- %%
- n ++num_lines; ++num_chars;
- . ++num_chars;
- %%
- main()
- {
- yylex();
- printf( "# of lines = %d, # of chars = %dn",
- num_lines, num_chars );
- }
- This scanner counts the number of characters and the number of lines in
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- its input (it produces no output other than the final report on the
- counts). The first line declares two globals, "num_lines" and
- "num_chars", which are accessible both inside yylex() and in the main()
- routine declared after the second "%%". There are two rules, one which
- matches a newline ("n") and increments both the line count and the
- character count, and one which matches any character other than a newline
- (indicated by the "." regular expression).
- A somewhat more complicated example:
- /* scanner for a toy Pascal-like language */
- %{
- /* need this for the call to atof() below */
- #include <math.h>
- %}
- DIGIT [0-9]
- ID [a-z][a-z0-9]*
- %%
- {DIGIT}+ {
- printf( "An integer: %s (%d)n", yytext,
- atoi( yytext ) );
- }
- {DIGIT}+"."{DIGIT}* {
- printf( "A float: %s (%g)n", yytext,
- atof( yytext ) );
- }
- if|then|begin|end|procedure|function {
- printf( "A keyword: %sn", yytext );
- }
- {ID} printf( "An identifier: %sn", yytext );
- "+"|"-"|"*"|"/" printf( "An operator: %sn", yytext );
- "{"[^}n]*"}" /* eat up one-line comments */
- [ tn]+ /* eat up whitespace */
- . printf( "Unrecognized character: %sn", yytext );
- %%
- main( argc, argv )
- int argc;
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- char **argv;
- {
- ++argv, --argc; /* skip over program name */
- if ( argc > 0 )
- yyin = fopen( argv[0], "r" );
- else
- yyin = stdin;
- yylex();
- }
- This is the beginnings of a simple scanner for a language like Pascal.
- It identifies different types of tokens and reports on what it has seen.
- The details of this example will be explained in the following sections.
- FORMAT OF THE INPUT FILE
- The flex input file consists of three sections, separated by a line with
- just %% in it:
- definitions
- %%
- rules
- %%
- user code
- The definitions section contains declarations of simple name definitions
- to simplify the scanner specification, and declarations of start
- conditions, which are explained in a later section.
- Name definitions have the form:
- name definition
- The "name" is a word beginning with a letter or an underscore ('_')
- followed by zero or more letters, digits, '_', or '-' (dash). The
- definition is taken to begin at the first non-white-space character
- following the name and continuing to the end of the line. The definition
- can subsequently be referred to using "{name}", which will expand to
- "(definition)". For example,
- DIGIT [0-9]
- ID [a-z][a-z0-9]*
- defines "DIGIT" to be a regular expression which matches a single digit,
- and "ID" to be a regular expression which matches a letter followed by
- zero-or-more letters-or-digits. A subsequent reference to
- {DIGIT}+"."{DIGIT}*
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- is identical to
- ([0-9])+"."([0-9])*
- and matches one-or-more digits followed by a '.' followed by zero-or-more
- digits.
- The rules section of the flex input contains a series of rules of the
- form:
- pattern action
- where the pattern must be unindented and the action must begin on the
- same line.
- See below for a further description of patterns and actions.
- Finally, the user code section is simply copied to lex.yy.c verbatim. It
- is used for companion routines which call or are called by the scanner.
- The presence of this section is optional; if it is missing, the second %%
- in the input file may be skipped, too.
- In the definitions and rules sections, any indented text or text enclosed
- in %{ and %} is copied verbatim to the output (with the %{}'s removed).
- The %{}'s must appear unindented on lines by themselves.
- In the rules section, any indented or %{} text appearing before the first
- rule may be used to declare variables which are local to the scanning
- routine and (after the declarations) code which is to be executed
- whenever the scanning routine is entered. Other indented or %{} text in
- the rule section is still copied to the output, but its meaning is not
- well-defined and it may well cause compile-time errors (this feature is
- present for POSIX compliance; see below for other such features).
- In the definitions section, an unindented comment (i.e., a line beginning
- with "/*") is also copied verbatim to the output up to the next "*/".
- Also, any line in the definitions section beginning with '#' is ignored,
- though this style of comment is deprecated and may go away in the future.
- PATTERNS
- The patterns in the input are written using an extended set of regular
- expressions. These are:
- x match the character 'x'
- . any character except newline
- [xyz] a "character class"; in this case, the pattern
- matches either an 'x', a 'y', or a 'z'
- [abj-oZ] a "character class" with a range in it; matches
- an 'a', a 'b', any letter from 'j' through 'o',
- or a 'Z'
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- [^A-Z] a "negated character class", i.e., any character
- but those in the class. In this case, any
- character EXCEPT an uppercase letter.
- [^A-Zn] any character EXCEPT an uppercase letter or
- a newline
- r* zero or more r's, where r is any regular expression
- r+ one or more r's
- r? zero or one r's (that is, "an optional r")
- r{2,5} anywhere from two to five r's
- r{2,} two or more r's
- r{4} exactly 4 r's
- {name} the expansion of the "name" definition
- (see above)
- "[xyz]"foo"
- the literal string: [xyz]"foo
- X if X is an 'a', 'b', 'f', 'n', 'r', 't', or 'v',
- then the ANSI-C interpretation of x.
- Otherwise, a literal 'X' (used to escape
- operators such as '*')
- 123 the character with octal value 123
- x2a the character with hexadecimal value 2a
- (r) match an r; parentheses are used to override
- precedence (see below)
- rs the regular expression r followed by the
- regular expression s; called "concatenation"
- r|s either an r or an s
- r/s an r but only if it is followed by an s. The
- s is not part of the matched text. This type
- of pattern is called as "trailing context".
- ^r an r, but only at the beginning of a line
- r$ an r, but only at the end of a line. Equivalent
- to "r/n".
- <s>r an r, but only in start condition s (see
- below for discussion of start conditions)
- <s1,s2,s3>r
- same, but in any of start conditions s1,
- s2, or s3
- <<EOF>> an end-of-file
- <s1,s2><<EOF>>
- an end-of-file when in start condition s1 or s2
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- The regular expressions listed above are grouped according to precedence,
- from highest precedence at the top to lowest at the bottom. Those
- grouped together have equal precedence. For example,
- foo|bar*
- is the same as
- (foo)|(ba(r*))
- since the '*' operator has higher precedence than concatenation, and
- concatenation higher than alternation ('|'). This pattern therefore
- matches either the string "foo" or the string "ba" followed by zero-or-
- more r's. To match "foo" or zero-or-more "bar"'s, use:
- foo|(bar)*
- and to match zero-or-more "foo"'s-or-"bar"'s:
- (foo|bar)*
- Some notes on patterns:
- - A negated character class such as the example "[^A-Z]" above will
- match a newline unless "n" (or an equivalent escape sequence) is
- one of the characters explicitly present in the negated character
- class (e.g., "[^A-Zn]"). This is unlike how many other regular
- expression tools treat negated character classes, but unfortunately
- the inconsistency is historically entrenched. Matching newlines
- means that a pattern like [^"]* can match an entire input
- (overflowing the scanner's input buffer) unless there's another
- quote in the input.
- - A rule can have at most one instance of trailing context (the '/'
- operator or the '$' operator). The start condition, '^', and
- "<<EOF>>" patterns can only occur at the beginning of a pattern,
- and, as well as with '/' and '$', cannot be grouped inside
- parentheses. A '^' which does not occur at the beginning of a rule
- or a '$' which does not occur at the end of a rule loses its special
- properties and is treated as a normal character.
- The following are illegal:
- foo/bar$
- <sc1>foo<sc2>bar
- Note that the first of these, can be written "foo/barn".
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- The following will result in '$' or '^' being treated as a normal
- character:
- foo|(bar$)
- foo|^bar
- If what's wanted is a "foo" or a bar-followed-by-a-newline, the
- following could be used (the special '|' action is explained below):
- foo |
- bar$ /* action goes here */
- A similar trick will work for matching a foo or a bar-at-the-
- beginning-of-a-line.
- HOW THE INPUT IS MATCHED
- When the generated scanner is run, it analyzes its input looking for
- strings which match any of its patterns. If it finds more than one
- match, it takes the one matching the most text (for trailing context
- rules, this includes the length of the trailing part, even though it will
- then be returned to the input). If it finds two or more matches of the
- same length, the rule listed first in the flex input file is chosen.
- Once the match is determined, the text corresponding to the match (called
- the token) is made available in the global character pointer yytext, and
- its length in the global integer yyleng. The action corresponding to the
- matched pattern is then executed (a more detailed description of actions
- follows), and then the remaining input is scanned for another match.
- If no match is found, then the default rule is executed: the next
- character in the input is considered matched and copied to the standard
- output. Thus, the simplest legal flex input is:
- %%
- which generates a scanner that simply copies its input (one character at
- a time) to its output.
- ACTIONS
- Each pattern in a rule has a corresponding action, which can be any
- arbitrary C statement. The pattern ends at the first non-escaped
- whitespace character; the remainder of the line is its action. If the
- action is empty, then when the pattern is matched the input token is
- simply discarded. For example, here is the specification for a program
- which deletes all occurrences of "zap me" from its input:
- %%
- "zap me"
- (It will copy all other characters in the input to the output since they
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- will be matched by the default rule.)
- Here is a program which compresses multiple blanks and tabs down to a
- single blank, and throws away whitespace found at the end of a line:
- %%
- [ t]+ putchar( ' ' );
- [ t]+$ /* ignore this token */
- If the action contains a '{', then the action spans till the balancing
- '}' is found, and the action may cross multiple lines. flex knows about
- C strings and comments and won't be fooled by braces found within them,
- but also allows actions to begin with %{ and will consider the action to
- be all the text up to the next %} (regardless of ordinary braces inside
- the action).
- An action consisting solely of a vertical bar ('|') means "same as the
- action for the next rule." See below for an illustration.
- Actions can include arbitrary C code, including return statements to
- return a value to whatever routine called yylex(). Each time yylex() is
- called it continues processing tokens from where it last left off until
- it either reaches the end of the file or executes a return. Once it
- reaches an end-of-file, however, then any subsequent call to yylex() will
- simply immediately return, unless yyrestart() is first called (see
- below).
- Actions are not allowed to modify yytext or yyleng.
- There are a number of special directives which can be included within an
- action:
- - ECHO copies yytext to the scanner's output.
- - BEGIN followed by the name of a start condition places the scanner
- in the corresponding start condition (see below).
- - REJECT directs the scanner to proceed on to the "second best" rule
- which matched the input (or a prefix of the input). The rule is
- chosen as described above in "How the Input is Matched", and yytext
- and yyleng set up appropriately. It may either be one which matched
- as much text as the originally chosen rule but came later in the
- flex input file, or one which matched less text. For example, the
- following will both count the words in the input and call the
- routine special() whenever "frob" is seen:
- int word_count = 0;
- %%
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- frob special(); REJECT;
- [^ tn]+ ++word_count;
- Without the REJECT, any "frob"'s in the input would not be counted
- as words, since the scanner normally executes only one action per
- token. Multiple REJECT's are allowed, each one finding the next
- best choice to the currently active rule. For example, when the
- following scanner scans the token "abcd", it will write "abcdabcaba"
- to the output:
- %%
- a |
- ab |
- abc |
- abcd ECHO; REJECT;
- .|n /* eat up any unmatched character */
- (The first three rules share the fourth's action since they use the
- special '|' action.) REJECT is a particularly expensive feature in
- terms scanner performance; if it is used in any of the scanner's
- actions it will slow down all of the scanner's matching.
- Furthermore, REJECT cannot be used with the -f or -F options (see
- below).
- Note also that unlike the other special actions, REJECT is a branch;
- code immediately following it in the action will not be executed.
- - yymore() tells the scanner that the next time it matches a rule, the
- corresponding token should be appended onto the current value of
- yytext rather than replacing it. For example, given the input
- "mega-kludge" the following will write "mega-mega-kludge" to the
- output:
- %%
- mega- ECHO; yymore();
- kludge ECHO;
- First "mega-" is matched and echoed to the output. Then "kludge" is
- matched, but the previous "mega-" is still hanging around at the
- beginning of yytext so the ECHO for the "kludge" rule will actually
- write "mega-kludge". The presence of yymore() in the scanner's
- action entails a minor performance penalty in the scanner's matching
- speed.
- - yyless(n) returns all but the first n characters of the current
- token back to the input stream, where they will be rescanned when
- the scanner looks for the next match. yytext and yyleng are
- adjusted appropriately (e.g., yyleng will now be equal to n ). For
- example, on the input "foobar" the following will write out
- "foobarbar":
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- %%
- foobar ECHO; yyless(3);
- [a-z]+ ECHO;
- An argument of 0 to yyless will cause the entire current input
- string to be scanned again. Unless you've changed how the scanner
- will subsequently process its input (using BEGIN, for example), this
- will result in an endless loop.
- - unput(c) puts the character c back onto the input stream. It will
- be the next character scanned. The following action will take the
- current token and cause it to be rescanned enclosed in parentheses.
- {
- int i;
- unput( ')' );
- for ( i = yyleng - 1; i >= 0; --i )
- unput( yytext[i] );
- unput( '(' );
- }
- Note that since each unput() puts the given character back at the
- beginning of the input stream, pushing back strings must be done
- back-to-front.
- - input() reads the next character from the input stream. For
- example, the following is one way to eat up C comments:
- %%
- "/*" {
- register int c;
- for ( ; ; )
- {
- while ( (c = input()) != '*' &&
- c != EOF )
- ; /* eat up text of comment */
- if ( c == '*' )
- {
- while ( (c = input()) == '*' )
- ;
- if ( c == '/' )
- break; /* found the end */
- }
- if ( c == EOF )
- {
- error( "EOF in comment" );
- break;
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- }
- }
- }
- (Note that if the scanner is compiled using C++, then input() is
- instead referred to as yyinput(), in order to avoid a name clash
- with the C++ stream by the name of input.)
- - yyterminate() can be used in lieu of a return statement in an
- action. It terminates the scanner and returns a 0 to the scanner's
- caller, indicating "all done". Subsequent calls to the scanner will
- immediately return unless preceded by a call to yyrestart() (see
- below). By default, yyterminate() is also called when an end-of-
- file is encountered. It is a macro and may be redefined.
- THE GENERATED SCANNER
- The output of flex is the file lex.yy.c, which contains the scanning
- routine yylex(), a number of tables used by it for matching tokens, and a
- number of auxiliary routines and macros. By default, yylex() is declared
- as follows:
- int yylex()
- {
- ... various definitions and the actions in here ...
- }
- (If your environment supports function prototypes, then it will be "int
- yylex( void )".) This definition may be changed by redefining the
- "YY_DECL" macro. For example, you could use:
- #undef YY_DECL
- #define YY_DECL float lexscan( a, b ) float a, b;
- to give the scanning routine the name lexscan, returning a float, and
- taking two floats as arguments. Note that if you give arguments to the
- scanning routine using a K&R-style/non-prototyped function declaration,
- you must terminate the definition with a semi-colon (;).
- Whenever yylex() is called, it scans tokens from the global input file
- yyin (which defaults to stdin). It continues until it either reaches an
- end-of-file (at which point it returns the value 0) or one of its actions
- executes a return statement. In the former case, when called again the
- scanner will immediately return unless yyrestart() is called to point
- yyin at the new input file. ( yyrestart() takes one argument, a FILE *
- pointer.) In the latter case (i.e., when an action executes a return),
- the scanner may then be called again and it will resume scanning where it
- left off.
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- By default (and for purposes of efficiency), the scanner uses block-reads
- rather than simple getc() calls to read characters from yyin. The nature
- of how it gets its input can be controlled by redefining the YY_INPUT
- macro. YY_INPUT's calling sequence is "YY_INPUT(buf,result,max_size)".
- Its action is to place up to max_size characters in the character array
- buf and return in the integer variable result either the number of
- characters read or the constant YY_NULL (0 on Unix systems) to indicate
- EOF. The default YY_INPUT reads from the global file-pointer "yyin".
- A sample redefinition of YY_INPUT (in the definitions section of the
- input file):
- %{
- #undef YY_INPUT
- #define YY_INPUT(buf,result,max_size)
- {
- int c = getchar();
- result = (c == EOF) ? YY_NULL : (buf[0] = c, 1);
- }
- %}
- This definition will change the input processing to occur one character
- at a time.
- You also can add in things like keeping track of the input line number
- this way; but don't expect your scanner to go very fast.
- When the scanner receives an end-of-file indication from YY_INPUT, it
- then checks the yywrap() function. If yywrap() returns false (zero),
- then it is assumed that the function has gone ahead and set up yyin to
- point to another input file, and scanning continues. If it returns true
- (non-zero), then the scanner terminates, returning 0 to its caller.
- The default yywrap() always returns 1. Presently, to redefine it you
- must first "#undef yywrap", as it is currently implemented as a macro.
- As indicated by the hedging in the previous sentence, it may be changed
- to a true function in the near future.
- The scanner writes its ECHO output to the yyout global (default, stdout),
- which may be redefined by the user simply by assigning it to some other
- FILE pointer.
- START CONDITIONS
- flex provides a mechanism for conditionally activating rules. Any rule
- whose pattern is prefixed with "<sc>" will only be active when the
- scanner is in the start condition named "sc". For example,
- <STRING>[^"]* { /* eat up the string body ... */
- ...
- }
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- will be active only when the scanner is in the "STRING" start condition,
- and
- <INITIAL,STRING,QUOTE>. { /* handle an escape ... */
- ...
- }
- will be active only when the current start condition is either "INITIAL",
- "STRING", or "QUOTE".
- Start conditions are declared in the definitions (first) section of the
- input using unindented lines beginning with either %s or %x followed by a
- list of names. The former declares inclusive start conditions, the
- latter exclusive start conditions. A start condition is activated using
- the BEGIN action. Until the next BEGIN action is executed, rules with
- the given start condition will be active and rules with other start
- conditions will be inactive. If the start condition is inclusive, then
- rules with no start conditions at all will also be active. If it is
- exclusive, then only rules qualified with the start condition will be
- active. A set of rules contingent on the same exclusive start condition
- describe a scanner which is independent of any of the other rules in the
- flex input. Because of this, exclusive start conditions make it easy to
- specify "mini-scanners" which scan portions of the input that are
- syntactically different from the rest (e.g., comments).
- If the distinction between inclusive and exclusive start conditions is
- still a little vague, here's a simple example illustrating the connection
- between the two. The set of rules:
- %s example
- %%
- <example>foo /* do something */
- is equivalent to
- %x example
- %%
- <INITIAL,example>foo /* do something */
- The default rule (to ECHO any unmatched character) remains active in
- start conditions.
- BEGIN(0) returns to the original state where only the rules with no start
- conditions are active. This state can also be referred to as the start-
- condition "INITIAL", so BEGIN(INITIAL) is equivalent to BEGIN(0). (The
- parentheses around the start condition name are not required but are
- considered good style.)
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- BEGIN actions can also be given as indented code at the beginning of the
- rules section. For example, the following will cause the scanner to
- enter the "SPECIAL" start condition whenever yylex() is called and the
- global variable enter_special is true:
- int enter_special;
- %x SPECIAL
- %%
- if ( enter_special )
- BEGIN(SPECIAL);
- <SPECIAL>blahblahblah
- ...more rules follow...
- To illustrate the uses of start conditions, here is a scanner which
- provides two different interpretations of a string like "123.456". By
- default it will treat it as as three tokens, the integer "123", a dot
- ('.'), and the integer "456". But if the string is preceded earlier in
- the line by the string "expect-floats" it will treat it as a single
- token, the floating-point number 123.456:
- %{
- #include <math.h>
- %}
- %s expect
- %%
- expect-floats BEGIN(expect);
- <expect>[0-9]+"."[0-9]+ {
- printf( "found a float, = %fn",
- atof( yytext ) );
- }
- <expect>n {
- /* that's the end of the line, so
- * we need another "expect-number"
- * before we'll recognize any more
- * numbers
- */
- BEGIN(INITIAL);
- }
- [0-9]+ {
- printf( "found an integer, = %dn",
- atoi( yytext ) );
- }
- "." printf( "found a dotn" );
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- Here is a scanner which recognizes (and discards) C comments while
- maintaining a count of the current input line.
- %x comment
- %%
- int line_num = 1;
- "/*" BEGIN(comment);
- <comment>[^*n]* /* eat anything that's not a '*' */
- <comment>"*"+[^*/n]* /* eat up '*'s not followed by '/'s */
- <comment>n ++line_num;
- <comment>"*"+"/" BEGIN(INITIAL);
- Note that start-conditions names are really integer values and can be
- stored as such. Thus, the above could be extended in the following
- fashion:
- %x comment foo
- %%
- int line_num = 1;
- int comment_caller;
- "/*" {
- comment_caller = INITIAL;
- BEGIN(comment);
- }
- ...
- <foo>"/*" {
- comment_caller = foo;
- BEGIN(comment);
- }
- <comment>[^*n]* /* eat anything that's not a '*' */
- <comment>"*"+[^*/n]* /* eat up '*'s not followed by '/'s */
- <comment>n ++line_num;
- <comment>"*"+"/" BEGIN(comment_caller);
- One can then implement a "stack" of start conditions using an array of
- integers. (It is likely that such stacks will become a full-fledged flex
- feature in the future.) Note, though, that start conditions do not have
- their own name-space; %s's and %x's declare names in the same fashion as
- #define's.
- 26 May 1990 15
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- MULTIPLE INPUT BUFFERS
- Some scanners (such as those which support "include" files) require
- reading from several input streams. As flex scanners do a large amount
- of buffering, one cannot control where the next input will be read from
- by simply writing a YY_INPUT which is sensitive to the scanning context.
- YY_INPUT is only called when the scanner reaches the end of its buffer,
- which may be a long time after scanning a statement such as an "include"
- which requires switching the input source.
- To negotiate these sorts of problems, flex provides a mechanism for
- creating and switching between multiple input buffers. An input buffer
- is created by using:
- YY_BUFFER_STATE yy_create_buffer( FILE *file, int size )
- which takes a FILE pointer and a size and creates a buffer associated
- with the given file and large enough to hold size characters (when in
- doubt, use YY_BUF_SIZE for the size). It returns a YY_BUFFER_STATE
- handle, which may then be passed to other routines:
- void yy_switch_to_buffer( YY_BUFFER_STATE new_buffer )
- switches the scanner's input buffer so subsequent tokens will come from
- new_buffer. Note that yy_switch_to_buffer() may be used by yywrap() to
- sets things up for continued scanning, instead of opening a new file and
- pointing yyin at it.
- void yy_delete_buffer( YY_BUFFER_STATE buffer )
- is used to reclaim the storage associated with a buffer.
- yy_new_buffer() is an alias for yy_create_buffer(), provided for
- compatibility with the C++ use of new and delete for creating and
- destroying dynamic objects.
- Finally, the YY_CURRENT_BUFFER macro returns a YY_BUFFER_STATE handle to
- the current buffer.
- Here is an example of using these features for writing a scanner which
- expands include files (the <<EOF>> feature is discussed below):
- /* the "incl" state is used for picking up the name
- * of an include file
- */
- %x incl
- %{
- #define MAX_INCLUDE_DEPTH 10
- YY_BUFFER_STATE include_stack[MAX_INCLUDE_DEPTH];
- int include_stack_ptr = 0;
- 26 May 1990 16
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- %}
- %%
- include BEGIN(incl);
- [a-z]+ ECHO;
- [^a-zn]*n? ECHO;
- <incl>[ t]* /* eat the whitespace */
- <incl>[^ tn]+ { /* got the include file name */
- if ( include_stack_ptr >= MAX_INCLUDE_DEPTH )
- {
- fprintf( stderr, "Includes nested too deeply" );
- exit( 1 );
- }
- include_stack[include_stack_ptr++] =
- YY_CURRENT_BUFFER;
- yyin = fopen( yytext, "r" );
- if ( ! yyin )
- error( ... );
- yy_switch_to_buffer(
- yy_create_buffer( yyin, YY_BUF_SIZE ) );
- BEGIN(INITIAL);
- }
- <<EOF>> {
- if ( --include_stack_ptr < 0 )
- {
- yyterminate();
- }
- else
- yy_switch_to_buffer(
- include_stack[include_stack_ptr] );
- }
- END-OF-FILE RULES
- The special rule "<<EOF>>" indicates actions which are to be taken when
- an end-of-file is encountered and yywrap() returns non-zero (i.e.,
- indicates no further files to process). The action must finish by doing
- one of four things:
- 26 May 1990 17
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- - the special YY_NEW_FILE action, if yyin has been pointed at a new
- file to process;
- - a return statement;
- - the special yyterminate() action;
- - or, switching to a new buffer using yy_switch_to_buffer() as shown
- in the example above.
- <<EOF>> rules may not be used with other patterns; they may only be
- qualified with a list of start conditions. If an unqualified <<EOF>>
- rule is given, it applies to all start conditions which do not already
- have <<EOF>> actions. To specify an <<EOF>> rule for only the initial
- start condition, use
- <INITIAL><<EOF>>
- These rules are useful for catching things like unclosed comments. An
- example:
- %x quote
- %%
- ...other rules for dealing with quotes...
- <quote><<EOF>> {
- error( "unterminated quote" );
- yyterminate();
- }
- <<EOF>> {
- if ( *++filelist )
- {
- yyin = fopen( *filelist, "r" );
- YY_NEW_FILE;
- }
- else
- yyterminate();
- }
- MISCELLANEOUS MACROS
- The macro YY_USER_ACTION can be redefined to provide an action which is
- always executed prior to the matched rule's action. For example, it
- could be #define'd to call a routine to convert yytext to lower-case.
- The macro YY_USER_INIT may be redefined to provide an action which is
- always executed before the first scan (and before the scanner's internal
- initializations are done). For example, it could be used to call a
- 26 May 1990 18
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- routine to read in a data table or open a logging file.
- In the generated scanner, the actions are all gathered in one large
- switch statement and separated using YY_BREAK, which may be redefined.
- By default, it is simply a "break", to separate each rule's action from
- the following rule's. Redefining YY_BREAK allows, for example, C++ users
- to #define YY_BREAK to do nothing (while being very careful that every
- rule ends with a "break" or a "return"!) to avoid suffering from
- unreachable statement warnings where because a rule's action ends with
- "return", the YY_BREAK is inaccessible.
- INTERFACING WITH YACC
- One of the main uses of flex is as a companion to the yacc parser-
- generator. yacc parsers expect to call a routine named yylex() to find
- the next input token. The routine is supposed to return the type of the
- next token as well as putting any associated value in the global yylval.
- To use flex with yacc, one specifies the -d option to yacc to instruct it
- to generate the file y.tab.h containing definitions of all the %tokens
- appearing in the yacc input. This file is then included in the flex
- scanner. For example, if one of the tokens is "TOK_NUMBER", part of the
- scanner might look like:
- %{
- #include "y.tab.h"
- %}
- %%
- [0-9]+ yylval = atoi( yytext ); return TOK_NUMBER;
- TRANSLATION TABLE
- In the name of POSIX compliance, flex supports a translation table for
- mapping input characters into groups. The table is specified in the
- first section, and its format looks like:
- %t
- 1 abcd
- 2 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
- 52 0123456789
- 6 t n
- %t
- This example specifies that the characters 'a', 'b', 'c', and 'd' are to
- all be lumped into group #1, upper-case letters in group #2, digits in
- group #52, tabs, blanks, and newlines into group #6, and no other
- characters will appear in the patterns. The group numbers are actually
- disregarded by flex; %t serves, though, to lump characters together.
- Given the above table, for example, the pattern "a(AA)*5" is equivalent
- to "d(ZQ)*0". They both say, "match any character in group #1, followed
- 26 May 1990 19
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- by zero-or-more pairs of characters from group #2, followed by a
- character from group #52." Thus %t provides a crude way for introducing
- equivalence classes into the scanner specification.
- Note that the -i option (see below) coupled with the equivalence classes
- which flex automatically generates take care of virtually all the
- instances when one might consider using %t. But what the hell, it's there
- if you want it.
- OPTIONS
- flex has the following options:
- -b Generate backtracking information to lex.backtrack. This is a list
- of scanner states which require backtracking and the input
- characters on which they do so. By adding rules one can remove
- backtracking states. If all backtracking states are eliminated and
- -f or -F is used, the generated scanner will run faster (see the -p
- flag). Only users who wish to squeeze every last cycle out of their
- scanners need worry about this option. (See the section on
- PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS below.)
- -c is a do-nothing, deprecated option included for POSIX compliance.
- NOTE: in previous releases of flex -c specified table-compression
- options. This functionality is now given by the -C flag. To ease
- the the impact of this change, when flex encounters -c, it currently
- issues a warning message and assumes that -C was desired instead.
- In the future this "promotion" of -c to -C will go away in the name
- of full POSIX compliance (unless the POSIX meaning is removed
- first).
- -d makes the generated scanner run in debug mode. Whenever a pattern
- is recognized and the global yy_flex_debug is non-zero (which is the
- default), the scanner will write to stderr a line of the form:
- --accepting rule at line 53 ("the matched text")
- The line number refers to the location of the rule in the file
- defining the scanner (i.e., the file that was fed to flex).
- Messages are also generated when the scanner backtracks, accepts the
- default rule, reaches the end of its input buffer (or encounters a
- NUL; at this point, the two look the same as far as the scanner's
- concerned), or reaches an end-of-file.
- -f specifies (take your pick) full table or fast scanner. No table
- compression is done. The result is large but fast. This option is
- equivalent to -Cf (see below).
- 26 May 1990 20
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- -i instructs flex to generate a case-insensitive scanner. The case of
- letters given in the flex input patterns will be ignored, and tokens
- in the input will be matched regardless of case. The matched text
- given in yytext will have the preserved case (i.e., it will not be
- folded).
- -n is another do-nothing, deprecated option included only for POSIX
- compliance.
- -p generates a performance report to stderr. The report consists of
- comments regarding features of the flex input file which will cause
- a loss of performance in the resulting scanner. Note that the use
- of REJECT and variable trailing context (see the BUGS section in
- flex(1)) entails a substantial performance penalty; use of yymore(),
- the ^ operator, and the -I flag entail minor performance penalties.
- -s causes the default rule (that unmatched scanner input is echoed to
- stdout) to be suppressed. If the scanner encounters input that does
- not match any of its rules, it aborts with an error. This option is
- useful for finding holes in a scanner's rule set.
- -t instructs flex to write the scanner it generates to standard output
- instead of lex.yy.c.
- -v specifies that flex should write to stderr a summary of statistics
- regarding the scanner it generates. Most of the statistics are
- meaningless to the casual flex user, but the first line identifies
- the version of flex, which is useful for figuring out where you
- stand with respect to patches and new releases, and the next two
- lines give the date when the scanner was created and a summary of
- the flags which were in effect.
- -F specifies that the fast scanner table representation should be used.
- This representation is about as fast as the full table
- representation (-f), and for some sets of patterns will be
- considerably smaller (and for others, larger). In general, if the
- pattern set contains both "keywords" and a catch-all, "identifier"
- rule, such as in the set:
- "case" return TOK_CASE;
- "switch" return TOK_SWITCH;
- ...
- "default" return TOK_DEFAULT;
- [a-z]+ return TOK_ID;
- then you're better off using the full table representation. If only
- the "identifier" rule is present and you then use a hash table or
- some such to detect the keywords, you're better off using -F.
- 26 May 1990 21
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- This option is equivalent to -CF (see below).
- -I instructs flex to generate an interactive scanner. Normally,
- scanners generated by flex always look ahead one character before
- deciding that a rule has been matched. At the cost of some scanning
- overhead, flex will generate a scanner which only looks ahead when
- needed. Such scanners are called interactive because if you want to
- write a scanner for an interactive system such as a command shell,
- you will probably want the user's input to be terminated with a
- newline, and without -I the user will have to type a character in
- addition to the newline in order to have the newline recognized.
- This leads to dreadful interactive performance.
- If all this seems to confusing, here's the general rule: if a human
- will be typing in input to your scanner, use -I, otherwise don't; if
- you don't care about squeezing the utmost performance from your
- scanner and you don't want to make any assumptions about the input
- to your scanner, use -I.
- Note, -I cannot be used in conjunction with full or fast tables,
- i.e., the -f, -F, -Cf, or -CF flags.
- -L instructs flex not to generate #line directives. Without this
- option, flex peppers the generated scanner with #line directives so
- error messages in the actions will be correctly located with respect
- to the original flex input file, and not to the fairly meaningless
- line numbers of lex.yy.c. (Unfortunately flex does not presently
- generate the necessary directives to "retarget" the line numbers for
- those parts of lex.yy.c which it generated. So if there is an error
- in the generated code, a meaningless line number is reported.)
- -T makes flex run in trace mode. It will generate a lot of messages to
- stdout concerning the form of the input and the resultant non-
- deterministic and deterministic finite automata. This option is
- mostly for use in maintaining flex.
- -8 instructs flex to generate an 8-bit scanner, i.e., one which can
- recognize 8-bit characters. On some sites, flex is installed with
- this option as the default. On others, the default is 7-bit
- characters. To see which is the case, check the verbose (-v) output
- for "equivalence classes created". If the denominator of the number
- shown is 128, then by default flex is generating 7-bit characters.
- If it is 256, then the default is 8-bit characters and the -8 flag
- is not required (but may be a good idea to keep the scanner
- specification portable). Feeding a 7-bit scanner 8-bit characters
- will result in infinite loops, bus errors, or other such fireworks,
- so when in doubt, use the flag. Note that if equivalence classes
- are used, 8-bit scanners take only slightly more table space than 7-
- bit scanners (128 bytes, to be exact); if equivalence classes are
- not used, however, then the tables may grow up to twice their 7-bit
- 26 May 1990 22
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- size.
- -C[efmF]
- controls the degree of table compression.
- -Ce directs flex to construct equivalence classes, i.e., sets of
- characters which have identical lexical properties (for example, if
- the only appearance of digits in the flex input is in the character
- class "[0-9]" then the digits '0', '1', ..., '9' will all be put in
- the same equivalence class). Equivalence classes usually give
- dramatic reductions in the final table/object file sizes (typically
- a factor of 2-5) and are pretty cheap performance-wise (one array
- look-up per character scanned).
- -Cf specifies that the full scanner tables should be generated -
- flex should not compress the tables by taking advantages of similar
- transition functions for different states.
- -CF specifies that the alternate fast scanner representation
- (described above under the -F flag) should be used.
- -Cm directs flex to construct meta-equivalence classes, which are
- sets of equivalence classes (or characters, if equivalence classes
- are not being used) that are commonly used together. Meta-
- equivalence classes are often a big win when using compressed
- tables, but they have a moderate performance impact (one or two "if"
- tests and one array look-up per character scanned).
- A lone -C specifies that the scanner tables should be compressed but
- neither equivalence classes nor meta-equivalence classes should be
- used.
- The options -Cf or -CF and -Cm do not make sense together - there is
- no opportunity for meta-equivalence classes if the table is not
- being compressed. Otherwise the options may be freely mixed.
- The default setting is -Cem, which specifies that flex should
- generate equivalence classes and meta-equivalence classes. This
- setting provides the highest degree of table compression. You can
- trade off faster-executing scanners at the cost of larger tables
- with the following generally being true:
- slowest & smallest
- -Cem
- -Cm
- -Ce
- -C
- -C{f,F}e
- -C{f,F}
- fastest & largest
- 26 May 1990 23
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- Note that scanners with the smallest tables are usually generated
- and compiled the quickest, so during development you will usually
- want to use the default, maximal compression.
- -Cfe is often a good compromise between speed and size for
- production scanners.
- -C options are not cumulative; whenever the flag is encountered, the
- previous -C settings are forgotten.
- -Sskeleton_file
- overrides the default skeleton file from which flex constructs its
- scanners. You'll never need this option unless you are doing flex
- maintenance or development.
- PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS
- The main design goal of flex is that it generate high-performance
- scanners. It has been optimized for dealing well with large sets of
- rules. Aside from the effects of table compression on scanner speed
- outlined above, there are a number of options/actions which degrade
- performance. These are, from most expensive to least:
- REJECT
- pattern sets that require backtracking
- arbitrary trailing context
- '^' beginning-of-line operator
- yymore()
- with the first three all being quite expensive and the last two being
- quite cheap.
- REJECT should be avoided at all costs when performance is important. It
- is a particularly expensive option.
- Getting rid of backtracking is messy and often may be an enormous amount
- of work for a complicated scanner. In principal, one begins by using the
- -b flag to generate a lex.backtrack file. For example, on the input
- %%
- foo return TOK_KEYWORD;
- foobar return TOK_KEYWORD;
- the file looks like:
- State #6 is non-accepting -
- associated rule line numbers:
- 2 3
- out-transitions: [ o ]
- 26 May 1990 24
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- jam-transitions: EOF [ 01-n p-177 ]
- State #8 is non-accepting -
- associated rule line numbers:
- 3
- out-transitions: [ a ]
- jam-transitions: EOF [ 01-` b-177 ]
- State #9 is non-accepting -
- associated rule line numbers:
- 3
- out-transitions: [ r ]
- jam-transitions: EOF [ 01-q s-177 ]
- Compressed tables always backtrack.
- The first few lines tell us that there's a scanner state in which it can
- make a transition on an 'o' but not on any other character, and that in
- that state the currently scanned text does not match any rule. The state
- occurs when trying to match the rules found at lines 2 and 3 in the input
- file. If the scanner is in that state and then reads something other
- than an 'o', it will have to backtrack to find a rule which is matched.
- With a bit of headscratching one can see that this must be the state it's
- in when it has seen "fo". When this has happened, if anything other than
- another 'o' is seen, the scanner will have to back up to simply match the
- 'f' (by the default rule).
- The comment regarding State #8 indicates there's a problem when "foob"
- has been scanned. Indeed, on any character other than a 'b', the scanner
- will have to back up to accept "foo". Similarly, the comment for State
- #9 concerns when "fooba" has been scanned.
- The final comment reminds us that there's no point going to all the
- trouble of removing backtracking from the rules unless we're using -f or
- -F, since there's no performance gain doing so with compressed scanners.
- The way to remove the backtracking is to add "error" rules:
- %%
- foo return TOK_KEYWORD;
- foobar return TOK_KEYWORD;
- fooba |
- foob |
- fo {
- /* false alarm, not really a keyword */
- return TOK_ID;
- }
- 26 May 1990 25
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- Eliminating backtracking among a list of keywords can also be done using
- a "catch-all" rule:
- %%
- foo return TOK_KEYWORD;
- foobar return TOK_KEYWORD;
- [a-z]+ return TOK_ID;
- This is usually the best solution when appropriate.
- Backtracking messages tend to cascade. With a complicated set of rules
- it's not uncommon to get hundreds of messages. If one can decipher them,
- though, it often only takes a dozen or so rules to eliminate the
- backtracking (though it's easy to make a mistake and have an error rule
- accidentally match a valid token. A possible future flex feature will be
- to automatically add rules to eliminate backtracking).
- Variable trailing context (where both the leading and trailing parts do
- not have a fixed length) entails almost the same performance loss as
- REJECT (i.e., substantial). So when possible a rule like:
- %%
- mouse|rat/(cat|dog) run();
- is better written:
- %%
- mouse/cat|dog run();
- rat/cat|dog run();
- or as
- %%
- mouse|rat/cat run();
- mouse|rat/dog run();
- Note that here the special '|' action does not provide any savings, and
- can even make things worse (see BUGS in flex(1)).
- Another area where the user can increase a scanner's performance (and one
- that's easier to implement) arises from the fact that the longer the
- tokens matched, the faster the scanner will run. This is because with
- long tokens the processing of most input characters takes place in the
- (short) inner scanning loop, and does not often have to go through the
- additional work of setting up the scanning environment (e.g., yytext) for
- the action. Recall the scanner for C comments:
- %x comment
- %%
- 26 May 1990 26
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- int line_num = 1;
- "/*" BEGIN(comment);
- <comment>[^*n]*
- <comment>"*"+[^*/n]*
- <comment>n ++line_num;
- <comment>"*"+"/" BEGIN(INITIAL);
- This could be sped up by writing it as:
- %x comment
- %%
- int line_num = 1;
- "/*" BEGIN(comment);
- <comment>[^*n]*
- <comment>[^*n]*n ++line_num;
- <comment>"*"+[^*/n]*
- <comment>"*"+[^*/n]*n ++line_num;
- <comment>"*"+"/" BEGIN(INITIAL);
- Now instead of each newline requiring the processing of another action,
- recognizing the newlines is "distributed" over the other rules to keep
- the matched text as long as possible. Note that adding rules does not
- slow down the scanner! The speed of the scanner is independent of the
- number of rules or (modulo the considerations given at the beginning of
- this section) how complicated the rules are with regard to operators such
- as '*' and '|'.
- A final example in speeding up a scanner: suppose you want to scan
- through a file containing identifiers and keywords, one per line and with
- no other extraneous characters, and recognize all the keywords. A
- natural first approach is:
- %%
- asm |
- auto |
- break |
- ... etc ...
- volatile |
- while /* it's a keyword */
- .|n /* it's not a keyword */
- To eliminate the back-tracking, introduce a catch-all rule:
- %%
- asm |
- 26 May 1990 27
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- auto |
- break |
- ... etc ...
- volatile |
- while /* it's a keyword */
- [a-z]+ |
- .|n /* it's not a keyword */
- Now, if it's guaranteed that there's exactly one word per line, then we
- can reduce the total number of matches by a half by merging in the
- recognition of newlines with that of the other tokens:
- %%
- asmn |
- auton |
- breakn |
- ... etc ...
- volatilen |
- whilen /* it's a keyword */
- [a-z]+n |
- .|n /* it's not a keyword */
- One has to be careful here, as we have now reintroduced backtracking into
- the scanner. In particular, while we know that there will never be any
- characters in the input stream other than letters or newlines, flex can't
- figure this out, and it will plan for possibly needing backtracking when
- it has scanned a token like "auto" and then the next character is
- something other than a newline or a letter. Previously it would then
- just match the "auto" rule and be done, but now it has no "auto" rule,
- only a "auton" rule. To eliminate the possibility of backtracking, we
- could either duplicate all rules but without final newlines, or, since we
- never expect to encounter such an input and therefore don't how it's
- classified, we can introduce one more catch-all rule, this one which
- doesn't include a newline:
- %%
- asmn |
- auton |
- breakn |
- ... etc ...
- volatilen |
- whilen /* it's a keyword */
- [a-z]+n |
- [a-z]+ |
- .|n /* it's not a keyword */
- Compiled with -Cf, this is about as fast as one can get a flex scanner to
- 26 May 1990 28
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- go for this particular problem.
- A final note: flex is slow when matching NUL's, particularly when a
- token contains multiple NUL's. It's best to write rules which match
- short amounts of text if it's anticipated that the text will often
- include NUL's.
- INCOMPATIBILITIES WITH LEX AND POSIX
- flex is a rewrite of the Unix lex tool (the two implementations do not
- share any code, though), with some extensions and incompatibilities, both
- of which are of concern to those who wish to write scanners acceptable to
- either implementation. At present, the POSIX lex draft is very close to
- the original lex implementation, so some of these incompatibilities are
- also in conflict with the POSIX draft. But the intent is that except as
- noted below, flex as it presently stands will ultimately be POSIX
- conformant (i.e., that those areas of conflict with the POSIX draft will
- be resolved in flex's favor). Please bear in mind that all the comments
- which follow are with regard to the POSIX draft standard of Summer 1989,
- and not the final document (or subsequent drafts); they are included so
- flex users can be aware of the standardization issues and those areas
- where flex may in the near future undergo changes incompatible with its
- current definition.
- flex is fully compatible with lex with the following exceptions:
- - The undocumented lex scanner internal variable yylineno is not
- supported. It is difficult to support this option efficiently,
- since it requires examining every character scanned and reexamining
- the characters when the scanner backs up. Things get more
- complicated when the end of buffer or file is reached or a NUL is
- scanned (since the scan must then be restarted with the proper line
- number count), or the user uses the yyless(), unput(), or REJECT
- actions, or the multiple input buffer functions.
- The fix is to add rules which, upon seeing a newline, increment
- yylineno. This is usually an easy process, though it can be a drag
- if some of the patterns can match multiple newlines along with other
- characters.
- yylineno is not part of the POSIX draft.
- - The input() routine is not redefinable, though it may be called to
- read characters following whatever has been matched by a rule. If
- input() encounters an end-of-file the normal yywrap() processing is
- done. A ``real'' end-of-file is returned by input() as EOF.
- Input is instead controlled by redefining the YY_INPUT macro.
- 26 May 1990 29
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- The flex restriction that input() cannot be redefined is in
- accordance with the POSIX draft, but YY_INPUT has not yet been
- accepted into the draft (and probably won't; it looks like the draft
- will simply not specify any way of controlling the scanner's input
- other than by making an initial assignment to yyin).
- - flex scanners do not use stdio for input. Because of this, when
- writing an interactive scanner one must explicitly call fflush() on
- the stream associated with the terminal after writing out a prompt.
- With lex such writes are automatically flushed since lex scanners
- use getchar() for their input. Also, when writing interactive
- scanners with flex, the -I flag must be used.
- - flex scanners are not as reentrant as lex scanners. In particular,
- if you have an interactive scanner and an interrupt handler which
- long-jumps out of the scanner, and the scanner is subsequently
- called again, you may get the following message:
- fatal flex scanner internal error--end of buffer missed
- To reenter the scanner, first use
- yyrestart( yyin );
- - output() is not supported. Output from the ECHO macro is done to
- the file-pointer yyout (default stdout).
- The POSIX draft mentions that an output() routine exists but
- currently gives no details as to what it does.
- - lex does not support exclusive start conditions (%x), though they
- are in the current POSIX draft.
- - When definitions are expanded, flex encloses them in parentheses.
- With lex, the following:
- NAME [A-Z][A-Z0-9]*
- %%
- foo{NAME}? printf( "Found itn" );
- %%
- will not match the string "foo" because when the macro is expanded
- the rule is equivalent to "foo[A-Z][A-Z0-9]*?" and the precedence
- is such that the '?' is associated with "[A-Z0-9]*". With flex, the
- rule will be expanded to "foo([A-Z][A-Z0-9]*)?" and so the string
- "foo" will match. Note that because of this, the ^, $, <s>, /, and
- <<EOF>> operators cannot be used in a flex definition.
- 26 May 1990 30
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- The POSIX draft interpretation is the same as flex's.
- - To specify a character class which matches anything but a left
- bracket (']'), in lex one can use "[^]]" but with flex one must use
- "[^]]". The latter works with lex, too.
- - The lex %r (generate a Ratfor scanner) option is not supported. It
- is not part of the POSIX draft.
- - If you are providing your own yywrap() routine, you must include a
- "#undef yywrap" in the definitions section (section 1). Note that
- the "#undef" will have to be enclosed in %{}'s.
- The POSIX draft specifies that yywrap() is a function and this is
- very unlikely to change; so flex users are warned that yywrap() is
- likely to be changed to a function in the near future.
- - After a call to unput(), yytext and yyleng are undefined until the
- next token is matched. This is not the case with lex or the present
- POSIX draft.
- - The precedence of the {} (numeric range) operator is different. lex
- interprets "abc{1,3}" as "match one, two, or three occurrences of
- 'abc'", whereas flex interprets it as "match 'ab' followed by one,
- two, or three occurrences of 'c'". The latter is in agreement with
- the current POSIX draft.
- - The precedence of the ^ operator is different. lex interprets
- "^foo|bar" as "match either 'foo' at the beginning of a line, or
- 'bar' anywhere", whereas flex interprets it as "match either 'foo'
- or 'bar' if they come at the beginning of a line". The latter is in
- agreement with the current POSIX draft.
- - To refer to yytext outside of the scanner source file, the correct
- definition with flex is "extern char *yytext" rather than "extern
- char yytext[]". This is contrary to the current POSIX draft but a
- point on which flex will not be changing, as the array
- representation entails a serious performance penalty. It is hoped
- that the POSIX draft will be emended to support the flex variety of
- declaration (as this is a fairly painless change to require of lex
- users).
- - yyin is initialized by lex to be stdin; flex, on the other hand,
- initializes yyin to NULL and then assigns it to stdin the first time
- the scanner is called, providing yyin has not already been assigned
- to a non-NULL value. The difference is subtle, but the net effect
- is that with flex scanners, yyin does not have a valid value until
- the scanner has been called.
- 26 May 1990 31
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- - The special table-size declarations such as %a supported by lex are
- not required by flex scanners; flex ignores them.
- - The name FLEX_SCANNER is #define'd so scanners may be written for
- use with either flex or lex.
- The following flex features are not included in lex or the POSIX draft
- standard:
- yyterminate()
- <<EOF>>
- YY_DECL
- #line directives
- %{}'s around actions
- yyrestart()
- comments beginning with '#' (deprecated)
- multiple actions on a line
- This last feature refers to the fact that with flex you can put multiple
- actions on the same line, separated with semi-colons, while with lex, the
- following
- foo handle_foo(); ++num_foos_seen;
- is (rather surprisingly) truncated to
- foo handle_foo();
- flex does not truncate the action. Actions that are not enclosed in
- braces are simply terminated at the end of the line.
- DIAGNOSTICS
- reject_used_but_not_detected undefined or yymore_used_but_not_detected
- undefined - These errors can occur at compile time. They indicate that
- the scanner uses REJECT or yymore() but that flex failed to notice the
- fact, meaning that flex scanned the first two sections looking for
- occurrences of these actions and failed to find any, but somehow you
- snuck some in (via a #include file, for example). Make an explicit
- reference to the action in your flex input file. (Note that previously
- flex supported a %used/%unused mechanism for dealing with this problem;
- this feature is still supported but now deprecated, and will go away soon
- unless the author hears from people who can argue compellingly that they
- need it.)
- flex scanner jammed - a scanner compiled with -s has encountered an input
- string which wasn't matched by any of its rules.
- flex input buffer overflowed - a scanner rule matched a string long
- enough to overflow the scanner's internal input buffer (16K bytes by
- default - controlled by YY_BUF_SIZE in "flex.skel". Note that to
- 26 May 1990 32
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- redefine this macro, you must first #undefine it).
- scanner requires -8 flag - Your scanner specification includes
- recognizing 8-bit characters and you did not specify the -8 flag (and
- your site has not installed flex with -8 as the default).
- fatal flex scanner internal error--end of buffer missed - This can occur
- in an scanner which is reentered after a long-jump has jumped out (or
- over) the scanner's activation frame. Before reentering the scanner,
- use:
- yyrestart( yyin );
- too many %t classes! - You managed to put every single character into its
- own %t class. flex requires that at least one of the classes share
- characters.
- DEFICIENCIES / BUGS
- See flex(1).
- SEE ALSO
- flex(1), lex(1), yacc(1), sed(1), awk(1).
- M. E. Lesk and E. Schmidt, LEX - Lexical Analyzer Generator
- AUTHOR
- Vern Paxson, with the help of many ideas and much inspiration from Van
- Jacobson. Original version by Jef Poskanzer. The fast table
- representation is a partial implementation of a design done by Van
- Jacobson. The implementation was done by Kevin Gong and Vern Paxson.
- Thanks to the many flex beta-testers, feedbackers, and contributors,
- especially Casey Leedom, benson@odi.com, Keith Bostic, Frederic Brehm,
- Nick Christopher, Jason Coughlin, Scott David Daniels, Leo Eskin, Chris
- Faylor, Eric Goldman, Eric Hughes, Jeffrey R. Jones, Kevin B. Kenny,
- Ronald Lamprecht, Greg Lee, Craig Leres, Mohamed el Lozy, Jim Meyering,
- Marc Nozell, Esmond Pitt, Jef Poskanzer, Jim Roskind, Dave Tallman, Frank
- Whaley, Ken Yap, and those whose names have slipped my marginal mail-
- archiving skills but whose contributions are appreciated all the same.
- Thanks to Keith Bostic, John Gilmore, Craig Leres, Bob Mulcahy, Rich
- Salz, and Richard Stallman for help with various distribution headaches.
- Thanks to Esmond Pitt and Earle Horton for 8-bit character support; to
- Benson Margulies and Fred Burke for C++ support; to Ove Ewerlid for the
- basics of support for NUL's; and to Eric Hughes for the basics of support
- for multiple buffers.
- 26 May 1990 33
- FLEX(1) Minix Programmer's Manual FLEX(1)
- Work is being done on extending flex to generate scanners in which the
- state machine is directly represented in C code rather than tables.
- These scanners may well be substantially faster than those generated
- using -f or -F. If you are working in this area and are interested in
- comparing notes and seeing whether redundant work can be avoided, contact
- Ove Ewerlid (ewerlid@mizar.DoCS.UU.SE).
- This work was primarily done when I was at the Real Time Systems Group at
- the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in Berkeley, CA. Many thanks to all
- there for the support I received.
- Send comments to:
- Vern Paxson
- Computer Science Department
- 4126 Upson Hall
- Cornell University
- Ithaca, NY 14853-7501
- vern@cs.cornell.edu
- decvax!cornell!vern
- 26 May 1990 34